Remote Procedure Calls

1
Introduction
 IPC part of distributed system can often be
conveniently handled by message-passing model.
 It doesn't offer a uniform panacea for all the needs.
 It can be said as the special case of message-passing
model.

2
 RPC
 It has become widely accepted because of the
following features:
 Simple call syntax and similarity to local procedure calls.
 It specifies a well defined interface and this property
supports compile-time type checking and automated
interface generation.
 Its ease of use, efficiency and generality.
 It can be used as an IPC mechanism between processes on
different machines and also between different processes on
the same machine.

3
RPC Model
 It is similar to commonly used function / procedure
call model. It works in the following manner:
1. For making a procedure call, the caller places arguments
to the procedure in some well specified location.
2. Control is then transferred to the sequence of instructions
that constitutes the body of the procedure.
3. The procedure body is executed in a newly created
execution environment that includes copies of the
arguments given in the calling instruction.

4
Cont…
4. After the procedure execution is over, control returns to
the calling point, returning a result.

 The RPC enables a call (either from a local or remote

process) to be made to a procedure that does not reside in the
address space of the calling process.

 Since the caller and the callee processes have disjoint address
space, the remote procedure has no access to data and
variables of the callers environment.

5
Cont…
 Therefore RPC facility uses a message-passing scheme for
information exchange between the caller and the callee
processes.

 On arrival of request message, the server process extracts the

procedure’s parameters, computes the result, sends a reply
message, and then awaits the next call message.

 Only one of the two processes is active at any given time.

6
Cont…

7
Cont…
 It is not always necessary that the caller gets blocked.
 There can be RPC implementations depending on the
parallelism of the caller and the callee’s environment or other
features.
 The RPC could be asynchronous, so that the client may do
useful work while waiting for the reply from the server.
 Server can create a thread to process an incoming request so
that the server can be free to receive other requests.

8
Transparency of RPC
 A transparent RPC is one in which the local and remote
procedure calls are indistinguishable to the programmers.
 Types of transparencies:
 Syntactic transparency
 A remote procedure call should have exactly the same syntax as a
local procedure call.
 Semantic transparency
 The semantics of a remote procedure call are identical to those of a
local procedure call.

 Syntactic transparency is not an issue but semantic

transparency is difficult.
9
RPCs vs. local procedure calls

1. Unlike local procedure calls, with RPCs, the called

procedure is executed in an address space that is disjoint
from the calling program’s address space.
 Absence of shared memory.
 So, it is meaningless making call by reference, using
addresses in arguments and pointers.

10
Cont…

2. RPC’s are more vulnerable to failure.

 Possibility of processor crashes and communication
problems of a network.

3. RPCs are much more time consuming than local procedure

calls due to the involvement of communication network.

 Due to these reasons, total semantic transparency is

impossible.

11
Implementing RPC Mechanism

 To achieve the goal of semantic transparency, the

implementation of RPC mechanism is based on the
concepts of stubs.

12
Cont…
 Stubs
 Provide a normal / local procedure call abstraction by
concealing the underlying RPC mechanism.
 A separate stub procedure is associated with both the client
and server processes.
 To hide the underlying communication network, RPC
communication package known as RPC Runtime is used
on both the sides.

13
Cont…
 Thus implementation of RPC involves the five
elements of program:
1. Client
2. Client Stub
3. RPC Runtime
4. Server stub
5. Server

14
Cont…
 The client, the client stub, and one instance of
RPCRuntime execute on the client machine.
 The server, the server stub, and one instance of
RPCRuntime execute on the server machine.
 As far as the client is concerned, remote services are
accessed by the user by making ordinary local procedure
calls instead of using the send and receive primitives.

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16
Client Stub
 It is responsible for the following two tasks:
 On receipt of a call request from the client:
 it packs the specifications of the target procedure and
the arguments into a message &
 asks the local RPC Runtime to send it to the server
stub.

 On receipt of the result of procedure execution, it unpacks

the result and passes it to the client.

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RPCRuntime
 It handles transmission of messages across the
network between Client and the server machine.

 It is responsible for
 Retransmission,
 Acknowledgement,
 Routing &
 Encryption.

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Server Stub
 It is responsible for the following two tasks:

 On receipt of a call request message from the local RPC

Runtime, it unpacks it and makes a perfectly normal call
to invoke the appropriate procedure in the server.

 On receipt of the result of procedure execution from the

server, it packs the result into a message and then asks the
local RPC Runtime to send it to the client stub.

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Stub Generation
 Stubs can be generated in one of the following two
ways:
 Manually &
 Automatically

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Automatic Stub Generation
 Interface Definition Language (IDL)
 Used to define interface between a client and the
server.
 Interface definition:
 It is a list of procedure names supported by the
interface together with the types of their
arguments and results.

 It also plays role in reducing data storage and

controlling amount of data transferred over the
network.

 It has information about type definitions,

enumerated types, and defined constants. 21
Cont…
 Export the interface
 A server program that implements procedures in the
interface.

 Import the interface

 A client program that calls procedures from an
interface.

 The interface definition is compiled by the IDL

compiler.

22
Cont…
 IDL compiler generates:
 components that can be combined with client and
server programs, without making any changes to
the existing compilers;
 client stub and server stub procedures;
 appropriate marshaling and unmarshaling
operations;
 a header file that supports the data types.

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RPC Messages
 RPC system is independent of transport protocols and is not
concerned as to how a message is passed from one process
to another.

 Types of messages involved in the implementation of RPC

system:
 Call messages
 Reply messages

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Call Messages
 Components necessary in a call message are:
1. The identification Information of the remote procedure
to be executed.

2. The arguments necessary for the execution of the

procedure.

3. Message Identification field that consists of a sequence

number for identifying lost and duplicate messages.

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Call Messages
4. Message Type field is used to distinguish between call
and reply messages.

5. Client Identification Field allows the server to:

 Identify the client to whom the reply message has to

be returned and

 To allow server to authenticate the client process.

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Call Message Format

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Reply Messages
 These are sent by the server to the client for
returning the result of remote procedure
execution.

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Cont…
 Conditions for unsuccessful message sent by
the server:
 The server finds that the call message is not
intelligible to it.
 Client is not authorized to use the service.
 Remote procedure identifier is missing.
 The remote procedure is not able to decode the
supplied arguments.
 Occurrence of exception condition.

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Reply message formats

Message Message Reply status Result

identifier type (successful)

A successful reply message format

Message Message Reply status Reason for

identifier type (unsuccessful) failure

An unsuccessful reply message format

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Marshalling Arguments and Results
 The arguments and results in remote
procedure calls are language-level data
structures, which are transferred in the form of
message data.

 Transfer of data between two computers

requires encoding and decoding of the
message data.

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Marshalling Arguments and Results
 Encoding and decoding of messages in RPC is
known as marshaling & Unmarshaling,
respectively.

 Classification of marshaling procedures:

 Those provided as a part of the RPC software.

 Those that are defined by the users of the RPC system.

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Server Management
 Issues :

 Server implementation

 Server creation

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Server Implementation
 Types of servers :

 Stateful servers

 Stateless servers

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Stateful Server
 A Stateful Server maintains clients state
information from one RPC to the next.

 These provide an easier programming paradigm.

 These are more efficient than stateless servers.

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Stateful file server

Client process Server process

Open (filename,mode)

Return (fid) Fid mode R/W

pointer
read (fid,100,buf)

Return(bytes 0 to 99)

Read (fid, 100, buf)

Return(bytes 100 to 199)

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Stateless Server
 Every request from a client must be
accompanied with all necessary parameters to
successfully carry out the desired operation.

 Stateless servers have distinct advantage over

stateful server in the event of a failure.

 The choice of using a stateless or a stateful

server is purely application dependent.

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Stateless file server

Client process Server process

File state information

File mode R/W read (filename,0,100,buf)

name pointer
Return(bytes 0 to 99)

Read (filename,100,100, buf)

Return(bytes 100 to 199)

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Server Creation Semantics
 A server process is independent of a client
process that makes a remote procedure call to
it.

 Server processes may either be created and

installed before their client processes or be
created on a demand basis.

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Server Creation Semantics
 Servers based on the life duration for which RPC
servers survive:

 Instance-per-call Servers

 Instance-per-session Server

 Persistent Servers

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Instance-per-call Servers
 These exist only for the duration of a single call.

 These server are created by RPCRuntime on the

server machine only when a call message arrives.

 The server is deleted after the call has been

executed.

 The servers of this type are

 Stateless, and
 more expensive for invoking same type of service.
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Instance-per-session Server
 These servers exist for the entire session for
which a client and a server interact.
 It can maintain intercall state information to
minimize
 the overhead involved in server creation &
 destruction for a client-server session that involves a
large number of calls.

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Persistent Servers
 Persistent servers remain in existence
indefinitely.

 Advantages:
 Most commonly used.
 Improves performance and reliability.
 Shared by many clients.

 Each server exports its services by registering

with binding agent.

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Parameter Passing Semantics
 Call by Value Semantics

 Call by Reference Semantics

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Call-by-value
 All parameters are copied into a message that is
transmitted from the client to the server through
the intervening network.

 It is time consuming for passing large data types

such as trees, arrays, etc.

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Call-by-reference
 RPC mechanisms can use the call-by-reference
semantics for parameter passing
 The client and the server exist in different address
space.

 Distributed systems having DSM mechanisms

can allow passing of parameters by reference.

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Call-by- object -reference
 A call-by-reference in which objects invocation is
used by the RPC mechanism.

 Here, the value of a variable is a reference to an

object.

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Call-by-move
 Call-by-move
 A parameter is passed by reference as in the method of
call-by-object-reference, but at the time of the call, the
parameter object is moved to the destination node
(callee) or
 May remains at the caller’s node.
 Thus call-by-visit or move.

 It allows packaging of the argument objects in the same

network packet as the invocation message, thereby
reducing the network traffic and message count.

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Call Semantics
 Failure of communication link between the caller
and the callee node is possible.

 Failures can be because of:

 Call Message
 Reply
 Caller / Callee crash or
 Link

 Failure Handling code is part of RPC Runtime

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Types of Call Semantics
 Possibly or May-Be Call Semantics
 Last-one call semantics
 Last-of-many call semantics
 At-least-once call semantics
 Exactly-once call semantics

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Possibly or May-Be Call Semantics
 It is a Request Protocol.
 It uses time out but no surety of reply.
 It is an Asynchronous RPC.
 Server need not send back the reply.
 Useful for periodic update services.

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Last-One Call Semantic
 It is Request / Reply protocol.

 Retransmission of call mesg. Based on time out,

until result recd. By caller.

 Result of last executed call are used by caller.

 It issues Orphan Call (whose parent has expired

due to node crash).

 Problems with nested RPC in transitive calls

 N1 –> N2 -> N3 & N1 Crashes.
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Last-of-many Call Semantic
 It is similar to last-one semantic except that the
orphan calls are neglected.

 When a call is repeated, it is assigned a new call

identifier.

 A caller accepts a response only if the call

identifier associated with it matches with the
identifier of the most recently repeated call,
otherwise it ignores the response message.

 Use call identifier to associate result

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At-least-once Call Semantic
 It guarantees that the call is executed one or more times but
does not specify which results are returned to the caller.

 It uses timeout-based retransmissions without caring for the

orphan calls.

 If there are any orphan calls, it takes the result of the first
response message and ignores the others, whether or not the
accepted response is from an orphan.

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Exactly-Once Call Semantics
 It is Request / Reply / ACK protocol.

 No matter how many calls are made, a procedure

is executed only once.

 The server deletes an information from its Reply

Cache only after receiving an ACK from the
client.

 Implementation of RRA protocol requires that the

unique message identifier associated with request
message must be ordered.
55
Communication protocols for RPCs
1. Request protocol
2. Request / Reply protocol
3. Request /Reply /Acknowledge-Reply protocol

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Request (R) protocol
Client Server

First Request message Procedure

RPC execution

Next Request message Procedure

RPC execution

57
Request / Reply (RR) protocol
Client Server

Request message
First Procedure
RPC execution
Reply message
Also serves as acknowledge-
Ment for the request message

Request message
Next Procedure
RPC execution
Reply message
Also serves as acknowledge-
Ment for the request message

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Request /Reply /Acknowledge-Reply
(RRA) protocol
Client Server

Request message
First Procedure
RPC execution
Reply message
Reply acknowledgement msg

Request message
Next Procedure
RPC execution
Reply message

Reply acknowledgement msg

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Complicated RPC’s
 Types of complicated RPCs

 RPC’s involving long duration calls or Large gaps

between calls

 RPC’s involving arguments and / or results that are too

large to fit in a single datagram packet.

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RPCs involving Long-Duration Calls
& Large Gaps Between Calls

 Two methods to handle these RPCs:

 Periodic probing of the server by the clients.

 Periodic generation of an ACK by the server.

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Periodic probing of the server by the clients

 After a client sends a request message to a server, it

periodically sends a probe packet to the server, which the
server is expected to acknowledge.

 This allows the client to detect a server’s crash or

communication link failures and to notify the corresponding
user of an exception condition.

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Periodic generation of an ACK by the server

 If a server is not able to generate the next packet

significantly sooner than the expected retransmission time, it
spontaneously generates an acknowledgement.

63
RPC’s involving Long Messages
 It proposes the use of multidatagram messages.

 A single ACk packet is used for all packets of this

multidatagram message.

 Another crude method is to break one logical RPC into

several physical RPC as in SUN Microsystem where RPC is
limited to 8 kilo bytes.

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Client – Server Binding
 Client Stub must know the location of a server before RPC
can take place between them.
 Process by which client gets associated with server is known
as BINDING.
 Servers export their operations to register their willingness to
provide services &
 Clients import operations, asking the RPCRuntime to locate
a server and establish any state that may be needed at each
end.

65
Cont…
 Issues for client-server binding process:
 How does a client specify a server to which it wants to get
bound?
 How does the binding process locate the specified server?
 When is it proper to bind a client to a server?
 Is it possible for a client to change a binding during
execution?
 Can a client be simultaneously bound to multiple servers
that provide the same service?

66
Server Naming
 The naming issue is the specification by a client of a server
with which it wants to communicate.

 Interface name of a server is its unique identifier.

 It is specified by type & instance.

 Type specifies the version number of different interfaces
 Instance specifies a server providing the services within
that interface.

67
Cont…
 Interface name semantics are based on an arrangement
between the exporter and importer.
 Interface names are created by the users, not by the RPC
package.
 The RPC package only dictates the means by which an
importer uses the interface name to locate an exporter.

68
Server locating
 Methods are:
1. Broadcasting
2. Binding agent

69
Broadcasting
 A message to locate a node is broadcast to all
the nodes from the client node.

 Node having desired server returns a response

message. (could be replicated)

 Suitable for small networks.

70
Binding Agent
 It is basically a name server used to bind a client to a server by
providing the client with the location information of the
desired server.

 It maintains a binding table containing mapping of server

interface name to its location.

 The table contains identification information and a handle is

used to locate it.

71
Cont…
 The location of the binding agent (having a fixed address) is
known to all nodes by using a broadcast message .

 Primitives used by Binding Agent

 Register
 Deregister
 Lookup

72
Cont…
1. The server registers itself
with the binding agent.
Binding
2. The client requests the Agent
binding agent for the server’s
location. 2
1
3. The binding agent returns the 3
server’s location information
to the client.
Client 4 Server
4. The client calls the server. Process Process

73
Cont…
 Advantages

 Support multiple servers having same interface type.

 Client requests can be spread evenly to balance the load.

74
Cont…
 Disadvantages
 The overhead involved in binding clients to servers is
large and becomes significant when many client
processes are short lived.

 A binding agent must be robust against failures and

should not become a performance bottleneck.

75
Cont…
 Solution
 distribute the binding function among several binding
agents, and

 Replicate the information among them.

 Again overhead in creating and handling replicas.

76
Binding Time
 Binding at compile time

 Binding at link time

 Binding at call time

77
Binding at compile time

Servers network address can be compiled into

client code.

78
Binding at link time
 Client makes an import request to the binding agent for
the service before making a call.

 Servers handle cached by the client to avoid contacting

binding agent for subsequent calls.

 This method is suitable for those situations in which a

client calls a server several times once it is bound to it.

79
Binding at call time (Indirect Call)

 A client is bound to a server at the time when it calls the

server for the first time during its execution.

 The commonly used approach for binding at call time is

the indirect call method.

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 Binding at call time by the method of indirect call

1. The client process passes the

server’s interface name and the
arguments of the RPC calls to the
binding agent. Binding
2. The binding agent sends an RPC call Agent
message to the server, including in
it the arguments received from the
1
client. 3
4 2
3. The server returns the result of
request processing to the binding
agent.
Client 5 Server
4. The binding agent returns this
Process Process
result to the client along with the
server’s handle.
5. Subsequent calls are sent directly
from the client process to the
server process.
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Changing Bindings

The flexibility provided by a system to change bindings dynamically is

very useful from a reliability point of view. Binding is a connection
establishment between a client and a server. The client or server of a
connection may wish to change the binding at some instance of time
due to some change in the system state. For example, a client willing
to get a request serviced by anyone of the multiple servers for that
service may be programmed to change a binding to another server of
the same type when a call to the already connected server fails.
Similarly, the server of a binding may want to alter the binding and
connect the client to another server in situations such as when the
service needs to move to another node or a new version of the server
is installed. When a binding is altered by the concerned server, it is
important to ensure that any state data held by the server is no
longer needed or can be duplicated in the replacement server. For
example, when a file server has to be replaced with a new one, either
it must be replaced when no files are open or the state of all the open
files must be transferred from the old server to the new one as a part
of the. replacement process 82
Multiple Simultaneous Bindings

In a system, a service may be provided by multiple servers. We have

seen that, in general, a client is bound to a single server of the
several servers of the same type. However, there may be situations
when it is advantageous for a client to be bound simultaneously to all
or multiple servers of the same type. Logically, a binding of this sort
gives rise to multicast communication because when a call is made,
all the servers bound to the client for that service will receive and
process the call. For example, a client may wish to update multiple
copies of a file that is replicated at several nodes. For this, the client
can be bound simultaneously to file servers of all those nodes where
a replica of the file is located.

83
Security issues
 Is the authentication of the server by the client required?

 Is the authentication of the client by the server required

when the result is returned?

 Is it all right if the arguments and results of the RPC are

accessible to users other than the caller and the callee?

84
Some special types or RPCs
 Callback RPC
 Broadcast RPC
 Batch-made RPC

85
Callback RPC
 It facilitates a peer-to-Peer paradigm among
participating processes.

 It allows a process to be both a client and a

server.

 Issues
 Providing server with clients handle
 Making the client process wait for the callback RPC
 Handling callback deadlocks

86
Cont…
Client Server

Call (parameter list)

Start Procedure execution

Callback (parameter list)

Stop Procedure execution
temporarily
Process callback
request and
send reply Reply (result of callback)
resume Procedure
execution

Reply (result of call)

Procedure execution ends

87
Broadcast RPC
A client’s request is broadcast on the network
and is processed by all the servers that have
the concerned procedure for processing that
request.

88
Cont…
Methods for broadcasting a client’s request:

1. Use of broadcast primitive to indicate that the client’s

request message has to be broadcasted.

2. Declare broadcast ports.

89
Cont…
Back-off algorithm can be used to increase the time
between retransmissions.

 In Sun OS, it retransmits the broadcast and waits for 4

sec.
 It then waits for 6 sec and so on.
 Thus increasing the time between retransmission is
known as back-off.
 It helps in reducing the load on the physical network
and computers involved.

90
Batch-mode RPC
 Batch-mode RPC is used to queue separate RPC requests
in a transmission buffer on the client side and then send
them over the network in one batch to the server.

 It reduces the overhead involved in sending requests

and waiting for a response for each request.

 It is efficient for applications requiring lower call rates

and client doesn’t need a reply.

 It requires reliable transmission protocol.

91
Lightweight RPC (LRPC)
 The communication traffic in operating systems are of two
types:
1. Cross-domain - involves communication between
domains on the same machine.

2. Cross-machine - involves communication between

domains located on separate machines.

 The LRPC is a communication facility designed and

optimized for cross-domain communications.

92
Cont…
 For cross domain, user level server processes have its own
address space.

 LRPC is safe and transparent and represents a viable

communication alternative for microkernel operating
systems.

93
Cont…
 Techniques used by LRPC for better performance:

 Simple control transfer

 Simple data transfer

 Simple stubs

 Design for concurrency

94
Simple control transfer
 It uses a special threads scheduling mechanism,
called handoff scheduling for direct context
switch from the client thread to the server thread
of an LRPC.

95
Simple data transfer
 LRPC reduces the cost of data transfer by
performing fewer copies of the data during its
transfer from one domain to another.

 An LRPC uses a shared-argument stack that is

accessible to both the client and the server.
 RPC – 4 copy operations
 Message buffer to kernel buffer to message buffer to
server stack
 LRPC – single copy operation

96
Cont…
 Pairwise allocation of argument stacks enables
LRPC to provide a private channel between the
client and server and also
 Allows the copying of parameters and results as
many times as are necessary to ensure correct
and safe operation.

97
Simple stub
 Every procedure has a call stub in the client’s
domain and an entry stub in the server’s
domain.
 At the time of transfer of control, kernel
associates execution stack with the initial call
frame expected by the server procedure.
 Now it directly invokes the corresponding
procedure’s entry in servers domain.
 Thus LRPC stubs blur the boundaries between
the protocol layers.

98
Optimizations for better performance
 Concurrent access to multiple servers
 Serving multiple requests simultaneously
 Reducing per-call workload of servers
 Reply caching of idempotent remote procedures
 Proper selection of timeout values
 Proper design of RPC protocol specification
 Only 3 out of 13 header fields of IP Suite (both TCP/IP &
UDP/IP) are used.

99
Reading
 Pg 212 – Pg 222

100