Chapter 1: Introduction to Geology and Earth

1.1. Geology
(Source: A. Balasubramanian, 2017. 150 Branches of Geology (Earth Sciences), 1st edition, University of
Mysore, India)

The word "Geology" is derived from the Greek word "geo" means globe and "logos"
means logical discourse. Hence, geology is defined as the logical study of all of the globe
(Earth). Today, geology also includes the study of the other planets and moons of the entire
solar system. The subject of geology encompasses all aspects including the composition,
structure, physical properties, and history of a planets'(like Earth's) inter-related components
and the processes that are shaping the features on the surface. Geologists typically study the
origin, occurrence, distribution and utilities of all materials (metallic, non-metallic, inorganic,
etc.), minerals, rocks, sediments, soils, water, oil and all other inorganic natural resources.

1.2. Importance of Geology

(Source: C. C. Plummer, D. H. Carlson and L. Hammersley, 2016. Physical Geology, 15th edition, McGraw-
Hill Education, USA)

Geology influences our lives in many

ways. Geologic features and processes
constrain where people can live because
these determine whether a site is safe from
landslides, floods, or other natural hazards.
Some areas are suitable for building sites, but
other areas are underlain by unstable
geologic materials that could cause damage
to any structure built there.
We depend on the Earth for energy
resources and the raw materials we need for
survival, comfort, and pleasure. Every
manufactured object relies on Earth’s
resources—even a pencil (Figure 1.1). The
Earth, at work for billions of years, has
localized material into concentrations that
humans can mine or extract. By learning how
the Earth works and how different kinds of
substances are distributed and why, we can
intelligently search for metals, sources of Figure 1.1: Earth’s resources needed to
energy, and gems. Even maintaining a supply
make a wooden pencil.
of sand and gravel for construction purposes
depends on geology.

1.3. Branches of Geology

(Source: A. Balasubramanian, 2017. 150 Branches of Geology (Earth Sciences), 1st edition, University of
Mysore, India)

Geology is a very vast subject covering a wide spectrum of scientific principles and
holding hundred and fifty plus scientific branches. In the olden days, people divided it into two

Page 1 of 7
broad areas, as physical geology and historical geology. The subject of Physical geology deals
with the study of Earth's materials, such as minerals and rocks, as well as the processes that are
operating on and within the Earth and on its surface. The subject of historical geology focuses
on the origin and evolution of life on the Earth, its continents, oceans, atmosphere, and the life
of all ecosystems. Basically, it is the study of the sequential changes that have happened and
evolved continuously during the past 4.6 billion years on the planet. Some of the notable
branches of geology related to civil engineering are discussed here.

1.3.1. Physical geology

Physical geology is the fundamental study of the earth's lithospheric components like
rocks, minerals, and soils and how they got originated over a period of time. The subject,
physical geology, deals with the Solar system, the Earth's origin, age and internal constitution,
weathering and mass-wasting, geological work of river, lake, glacier, wind, sea and
groundwater. It also deals with the volcanoes - their types & distribution, geological effects
and products; earthquakes -its distribution, causes and effects. Physical Geology also projects
the elementary ideas about the origin of geo synclines, concept of isostasy and mountain
building (Orogeny), continental drift, seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. This subject gives
the foundation for all other earth science branches.
1.3.2. Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of landforms and
landscapes created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near the Earth's
surface. It is concerned with the internal geologic processes of the earth's crust, such as tectonic
activity and volcanism that constructs new landforms, as well as externally driven forces of
wind, water, waves, and glacial ice that modify such landforms.
1.3.3. Mineralogy
The history of mineralogy is as old as humankind. Minerals have been an important
part of our society since the time of prehistoric man. Mineralogy is the branch of geology
concerned with the study of minerals. It is the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure,
and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy
include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their
geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. There are several different branches to
mineralogy.
1.3.4. Petrology
Petrology is the scientific study of rocks, their composition, texture, and structure, their
occurrence, distribution and origin in relation to physicochemical conditions and geologic
processes of formation. It is concerned with all three major types of rocks—igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary.
1.3.5. Structural Geology
Structural geology is the scientific study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock
units with respect to their deformational genesis and histories. Structural Geology aims to
characterize deformation structures (geometry), to characterize flow paths followed by
particles during deformation (kinematics), and to infer the direction and magnitude of the
Page 2 of 7
forces involved in driving deformation (dynamics). This subject is a field-based discipline.
Structural geology is an essential part of engineering geology.
1.3.6. Seismology
Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves
through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies. The field also includes studies of
earthquake environmental effects such as tsunamis as well as diverse seismic sources such as
volcanic, tectonic, oceanic, atmospheric, and artificial processes such as explosions.
1.3.7. Hydrology
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement and
properties of the waters of the earth, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed sustainability. All of the physical, chemical and biological processes
involving water as it travels its various paths in the earth's spheres are discussed in this subject.
1.3.8. Environmental Geology
Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the
practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. It
is the application of geological information to solve conflicts, minimizing possible adverse
environmental degradation or maximizing possible advantageous condition resulting from the
use of natural and modified environment. It is a multidisciplinary field that is closely related to
engineering geology.
1.3.9. Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a
distance, typically from aircraft or satellites. Remote sensing has a wide range of applications
in many different fields. Remote sensing helps in hazard assessment to track hurricanes,
earthquakes, erosion, and flooding. Data can be used to assess the impacts of a natural disaster
and create preparedness strategies to be used before and after a hazardous event. Satellite data
helps to monitor land use, map wetlands, and chart wildlife habitats. The application potential
is very huge.
1.3.10. Geoinformatics
Geoinformatics is the art, science and technology of acquisition, storage, processing,
production, presentation and dissemination of geospatial information. In real word, there are
many geographical features which include topographic features, land use, land cover, soils,
forests, rocks, water bodies, agriculture, city, streets, communication lines, district, etc. These
are spatial data often represented by a map. Information about these features is attribute data
which may form part of an information system. The advent of Satellite Remote Sensing and
subsequent development of Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information
System (GIS) have made significant changes in surveying and map making.

1.4. Engineering Geology

Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering study for the
purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for. It is an

Page 3 of 7
applied branch of earth science. It involves the application of knowledge of geosciences to
ensure safety, efficacy, and economy of engineering projects. It is primarily devoted to the
study of rocks and soil and underground water. In addition, engineering geology is associated
with the assessment and implementation of corrective measures for a wide variety of natural
and man-made hazards.
Engineering geologists provide geological and geotechnical recommendations,
analysis, and design associated with human development and various types of structures. The
realm of the engineering geologist is essentially in the area of earth-structure interactions, or
investigation of how the earth or earth processes impact human made structures and human
activities. Works completed by engineering geologists include geological hazard assessments,
geotechnical material properties, landslide and slope stability, erosion, flooding, dewatering,
and seismic investigations, etc.

1.5. Importance of Engineering Geology in Civil Engineering

(Source: Subinoy Gangopadhyay, 2013. Engineering Geology, 1st Edition, Oxford Press, Delhi India+
https://civilwale.com/importance-of-geology-in-civil-engineering/)

Engineering geology contributes to the development activity of a country that

necessitates construction of high dams, large reservoirs, long tunnels, railways, highways, and
several other engineering structures. All these civil engineering constructions are closely
associated with the geological environment, and as such engineering geological works are of
utmost importance. Engineering geology deals with the study of the structure of the earth in
relation to the civil engineering for the execution of safe and cost-effective design for
construction projects. The success and economy of engineering constructions depend upon the
understanding of the degree and extent of geological problems and their solution. Geological
information is necessary in every stage of the project be it planning, designing or construction
phase of the project. The importance of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as
follows:
1. Geology provides a systematic study of the structure and properties of construction
materials and their occurrence. The civil engineers need to know the properties of rocks
accurately to enable them to consider different rocks for any required purpose that is as
a foundation rock, as road metal, as concrete aggregate, as building stones, as the
roofing material for decorative purpose.
2. The selection of a site is important from the viewpoint of stability of foundation and
availability of construction materials. Geology provides knowledge about the site used
in the construction of buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges.
3. Geology helps to identify area susceptible to failures due to geological hazards such as
earthquake, landslides, weathering effects, etc.
4. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary for tunnelling,
constructing roads and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes.
5. The knowledge of groundwater is necessary for connection with excavation works,
water supply, irrigation and many other purposes. Hydrological maps provide
information about the distribution of surface water channels and the groundwater depth.
6. Geological maps help in planning civil engineering projects. It provides information
about the structural deposition of rock types in the proposed area.

Page 4 of 7
 7. Geology helps in determining the earthquake-prone areas. If any geological features
like faults, folds, etc. are found, they have to be suitably treated to increase the stability
of the structure.
8. The knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition (ETD) by surface water helps
soil conservation, river control, coastal and harbour works.
9. A geological survey of a site before starting a project will reduce the overall cost of the
project.

1.6. Interior of Earth

Seismic discontinuities aid in distinguishing divisions of the Earth into inner core, outer
core, D", lower mantle, transition region, upper mantle, and crust (oceanic and continental).
Lateral discontinuities also have been distinguished and mapped through seismic tomography
but shall not be discussed here.

• Inner core: 1.7% of the Earth's mass; depth of 5,150-6,370 kilometers. The inner core is
solid and unattached to the mantle, suspended in the molten outer core. It is believed to
have solidified because of pressure-freezing. It is believed to consist primarily of an iron–
nickel alloy, and to be about the same temperature as the surface of the Sun: ≈5430 °C.
Because the inner core is denser (12.8 - 13.1g/cm3) than pure iron or nickel, even under
heavy pressures, it is believed that the core also contains enough gold, platinum and
other siderophile elements that if extracted and poured onto the Earth's surface it would
cover the entire Earth with a coating 0.45 m (1.5 feet) deep.
• Outer core: 30.8% of Earth's mass; depth of 2,890-5,150 kilometers. The outer core is a
hot, electrically conducting liquid within which convective motion occurs. This conductive
layer combines with Earth's rotation to create a dynamo effect that maintains a system of
electrical currents known as the Earth's magnetic field. It is also responsible for the subtle
jerking of Earth's rotation. This layer is not as dense as pure molten iron, which indicates
the presence of lighter elements. Scientists suspect that about 10% of the layer is composed
of sulfur and/or oxygen because these elements are abundant in the cosmos and dissolve
readily in molten iron. The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer
regions to 6100 °C near the inner core.
• D": 3% of Earth's mass; depth of 2,700-2,890 kilometers. Although it is often identified as
part of the lower mantle, seismic discontinuities suggest the D" layer might differ
chemically from the lower mantle lying above it.
• Lower mantle: 49.2% of Earth's mass; depth of 650-2,890 kilometers. The lower mantle
is probably composed mainly of silicon, magnesium, and oxygen. It probably also contains
some iron, calcium, and aluminum.
• Transition region: 7.5% of Earth's mass; depth of 400-650 kilometers. The transition
region or mesosphere (for middle mantle), sometimes called the fertile layer, is the source
of basaltic magmas. It also contains calcium, aluminum, and garnet, which is a complex
aluminum-bearing silicate mineral.
• Upper mantle: 10.3% of Earth's mass; depth of 10-400 kilometers. Fragments have been
excavated for our observation by eroded mountain belts and volcanic eruptions. Olivine
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4 and pyroxene (Mg,Fe)SiO3 have been the primary minerals found in this
way. Part of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere might be partially molten.

Page 5 of 7
 Figure 1.2: Layers of Earth and their characteristics

• Oceanic crust: 0.099% of Earth's mass; depth of 0-10 kilometers. The majority of the
Earth's crust was made through volcanic activity. The oceanic ridge system, a 40,000-
kilometer network of volcanoes, generates new oceanic crust at the rate of 17 km3 per year,
covering the ocean floor with basalt. Hawaii and Iceland are two examples of the
accumulation of basalt piles.
• Continental crust: 0.374% of Earth's mass; depth of 0-50 kilometers. This is the outer part
of the Earth composed essentially of crystalline rocks. These are low-density buoyant
minerals dominated mostly by quartz (SiO2) and feldspars (metal-poor silicates). The crust
(both oceanic and continental) is the surface of the Earth; as such, it is the coldest part of
our planet. Because cold rocks deform slowly, we refer to this rigid outer shell as the
lithosphere (the rocky or strong layer).

1.7. Composition and structure

Earth is a terrestrial planet, meaning that it is a rocky body, rather than a gas giant like
Jupiter. It is the largest of the four solar terrestrial planets in size and mass. Of these four
planets, Earth also has the highest density, the highest surface gravity, the strongest magnetic
field, and fastest rotation. It also is the only terrestrial planet with active plate tectonics.

The shape of the Earth is very close to that of an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened
along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator. This bulge results
from the rotation of the Earth, and causes the diameter at the equator to be 43 km larger than
the pole to pole diameter. The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about 12,742 km.

Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid, though on a global scale, these
deviations are very small: Earth has a tolerance of about one part in about 584, or 0.17%, from
the reference spheroid, which is less than the 0.22% tolerance allowed in billiard balls. The

Page 6 of 7
largest local deviations in the rocky surface of the Earth are Mount Everest (8848 m above
local sea level) and the Mariana Trench (10,911 m below local sea level).

The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 × 1024 kg. It is composed mostly of iron
(32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%),
calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts
of other elements. The composition of the earth’s crust is given in the Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Composition of Earth’s crust

Element Crust
Percentage by Percentage by
(Symbol) Mass Volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04
Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88
Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48
Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49
Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18
Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11
Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33
Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42
Other 0.91 0.07

Page 7 of 7