CLIENTS PEOPLE PERFORMANCE

GHD GEOTECHNICS
GEOTECHNICAL
FIELD REFERENCE BOOK (FRB)
ISSUE: JANUARY 2012

Belongs To:

GHD GEOTECHNICS provides specialist services in Geotechnical Engineering | Geology | Field & Laboratory Testing | Hydrogeology
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SIZE SCALE DIP ANGLES
0

o
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 15
MILLIMETRES
o
To 200 mm 30

Boulder >200 mm
0.075mm SAND

63mm COBBLES
2.36mm GRAVEL
<0.075mm SILT & CLAY

o
45

60 o

75 o

90o
CLIENTS PEOPLE PERFORMANCE

GHD GEOTECHNICS

GHD GEOTECHNICS© ISSUE: JANUARY 2012

Due to the limitations of AS1726 and its non-universal application, this document provides additional
information for geotechnical practitioners in the field. The information contained within this booklet is
confidential and for the exclusive use of GHD Geotechnics.
If found, please return to: GHD Geotechnics, 57 Herbert Street, Artarmon, NSW 2064.
Comments and queries to: Greg Kotze Email Greg.Kotze@ghd.com
 3 Preparations
Project Briefing

1. Client name / Contact 14. Budget and Program

PREPARATIONS
2. Site Contact (if not as above) 15. Sub-contractor details
3. Site Location 16. Sampling requirements.
4. Job Manager (JM) and Project 17. Site access requirements - Physical /
Director (PD) Legal
5. Job Number 18. Site Logistics - Water, Access tracks
6. Safety and Environmental Plan 19. Approvals and Site constraints /
requirements Hazards
7. Project Specific JSEA’S and/or Hazard 20. Reinstatement requirements
Guides 21. Traffic or Public Site Controls.
8. Intent / Objectives of Investigation 22. Communication Plan - Public, Client
9. Anticipated Conditions / Site Geology and Manager
10. Plan of Investigation Sites 23. Travel and Accomodation
11. Method of investigation 24. Sample Management / Transport
12. Specifications for Investigation,
sampling and testing
13. Level of survey accuracy required
(for sites)
 4 Preparations
Field Equipment Checklist

§ Field Reference Book § Clinometer

§ Standard Sheets / Field Guide § Geo Pick
§ Briefing Sheets § Hand Lens
PREPARATIONS
§ Site Maps – Site / Geology/etc § Measuring Wheel and Staff
§ Clip board § Shovel/Spade
§ PPE and sustenance (water, etc) § Cutting Blade/Putty Knife
§ Wet Weather Gear / Gum Boots / Gators § Survey Pegs
§ Logging sheets § Spray Paint
§ Kit Bag / Equipment Box § Core Photo Board
§ Tape Measure – 8m & 50m § General Tools - Lump Hammer, Sledge
§ Ruler - Scale and Straight edge Hammer and Chisel
§ Protractor § Padlocks
§ Pencil / pens / markers / chalk § Hack Saw
§ Sample Bags § Wooden Pegs
§ Labels and Elastic Bands § Cling Film
§ Camera § Flagging and Gaffer Tape
§ GPS § Pocket Penetrometer
§ Batteries / chargers § Vane Shear
§ Compass § Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
 5 Preparations

Test Equipment Field Observations Checklist

“U50” / “U75” Push Tubes Site Plan – Mud Map
PREPARATIONS § §
§ Water whistle / Dip Meter § Topography
§ Vibrating Wire Piezos § Weather
§ Vernier Caliper § Site/Area History
§ Adjacent Development
§ Preliminary Assessment
§ Access
§ Progress of Works
§ Drainage
§ Seepage
§ Vegetation
§ Services
§ Existing Development
§ Soil/rock Exposures
§ Photo Schedule
§ GPS Co-ordinates
 CLIENTS PEOPLE PERFORMANCE

GHD GEOTECHNICS
SOIL
ISSUE: JANUARY 2012

GHD GEOTECHNICS provides specialist services in Geotechnical Engineering | Geology | Field & Laboratory Testing | Hydrogeology
 7 Soil
What to Record and the Order in which to Record it...
Soils Colour
§ Soil type / Name Shades Pale/light, medium, dark e.g. pale grey,
§ Moisture grey, dark grey
§ Colour (mottling if present) Banded Approximately parallel bands of colour
§ Consistency / density Streaked Randomly oriented streaks of colour
§ Structure (intact, fissures, shattered, Blotched Large patches of colour (>60mm
laminated, etc.) diameter)
§ Plasticity Mottled Irregular patches of colour (6-60mm
§ Minor components diameter)
§ Shape, size and angularity Spotted Very small patches of colour (<6mm
§ Presence of cements / pedocretes diameter)
§ Soil origin (e.g. residual, alluvium, Stained Local colour variations associated
colluvium, estuarine, fill, topsoil, etc.) with other features ie bedding, joints etc.
SOIL

§ Soil classification (AS 1726)

Moisture
(D) Dry (dusty, dry to the touch) or MC << PL
(SM) Slightly Moist MC < PL
(M) Moist (damp, no visible water) or MC = PL
(VM) Very Moist MC > PL
(W) Wet (visible free water, saturated condition) MC >> PL
 8 Soil
Consistency - Cohesive Soils
Undrained Shear SPT DCP Blows/ UCS by
Strength (Su kPa) N-Value 100mm PP kPa

Very Soft Exudes between fingers when <12 0-2 - <25

(VS) squeezed in hand.
Soft (S) Easily penetrated by thumb 12-25 2-4 <1 25-50
about 30-40mm.
Pick head can be pushed up in
the shaft.
Firm (F) Penetrated by thumb 20-30mm 25 4-8 1-3 50-100
with moderate effort. Sharp end
of pick pushed in 30-40mm.
Stiff (St) Indented by thumb about 5mm 50-100 8-15 3-7 100-200
SOIL

with moderate effort. Pick

pushed in up to 10mm.
Very Stiff Readily indented by thumb nail. 100-200 15-30 7-17 200-400
(VSt) Slight indentation produced by
pushing pick into soil.
Hard (H) Difficult to indent with thumb >200 >30 >17 <400
nail. Requires power tools for
excavation.

Guide only. To be confirmed from reference to published correlations.

 9 Soil
Cohesive Soils
CORRELATION BETWEEN DENSITY INDEX AND SPT ‘N’ (based on Alpan, 1964)

SOIL

Guide only. To be confirmed from reference to published correlations.

10 Soil
Density - Granular Soils

Saturated Density DCP

Note: All SPT’s should be corrected prior to use or SPT (N) Index Blows/
assignment of strength (%) 100mm

Very Loose (VL) Very easily shovelled, <4 <15 <2

almost no resistance.
Loose (L) Low resistance to 4-10 15-35 2-4
shovelling.
Medium Dense (MD) Considerable resistance to 10-30 35-65 4-13
shovelling.
Dense (D) Requires hand pick for 30-50 65-85 13-20
SOIL

excavation.
Very Dense (VD) Requires powered tools >50 >85 >20
for excavation.

Guide only. To be confirmed from reference to published correlations.

11 Soil
Structure / Other Features Stratified / Laminated - Layered Soil
Structure / Inhomogeneities and Voids
(cont)
Intact Structureless, no defects Pocket Irregular inclusion of different
identified material.
Fissured Soil contains defects which are Bedded/ These and other accepted
closed, stained or unstained Laminated/ geological terms may be used to
and of variable origin (eg. Foliated etc. describe sedimentary structures
Shrinkage or relict rock defects in transported soils and relict
in residual soils). structures in extremely
weathered rocks.
Slickensided Very close to extremely closely
spaced open defects resulting Pinholed Pinhole sized voids or pores
in gravel sized soil fragments (<2mm) that may require a hand
that are usually stiff to very stiff lens to identify. Often indicative
and difficult to break down. of potentially collapsible and/or
SOIL

Often associated with heaving dispersive soil types.

soils. Honey- Similar to pinholes but voids and
combed pores are >2mm. Pore size may
Stratified / Laminated - Layered Soil be specified in mm. Often
Structure / Inhomogeneities and Voids associated with weathered and
Layer Continuous zone across leached rocks. Often indicates
exposure or sample. potentially collapsible and/or
dispersive soils.
Lens Discontinuous layer of different
material, with lenticular shape.
12 Soil
Grading
Well Graded Having good representation of all particle sizes from largest to smallest.
Poorly Graded With one or more intermediate sizes poorly represented.
Gap Graded With one or more intermediate sizes absent.
Uniformly Graded Essentially of one size or narrow range of grain sizes.
Packing
Matrix Supported Clasts supported by matrix (give relationship eg 50:50).
Clast Supported Clasts touching (matrix may or may not be present).
Clast Supported / Full Matrix
Describe amount of matrix present using these or other terms
Clast Supported / Partial Matrix
as appropriate (e.g. trace of matrix or coated with matrix).
Clast Supported / No Matrix
Shape
Equidimensional Length = Width = Thickness
SOIL

Flat Length = Width = Thickness

Elongate Length >> Width = Thickness
Flat and Elongate Length >> Width >> Thickness
Irregular Irregular
Angularity
Angular Particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with unpolished surfaces.
Sub-angular Particles are similar to angular description but have rolled edges.
Sub-rounded Particles have nearly plane sides but have well-rounded corners and edges.
Rounded Particles have smoothly curved sides and no edges.
13 Soil
Soil Symbols

Main Components

Minor Components

Note: Natural soils are generally a combination of constituents e.g.

SOIL

Cementation
Note type / nature of cementation (e.g. carbonate, gypsum, iron, manganese etc.)
Uncemented Slakes when immersed in water.
Very Weakly Can be crushed between extended forefinger and thumb (force <80N).
Weakly Cannot be crushed between extended forefinger and thumb, but can be
crushed between hands (80-160N).
Strongly Fails under weight of average person (80kg), applied slowly underfoot on a hard
surface (160-800N).
Very Strongly Withstands weight of average person (80kg), applied slowly underfoot on a hard
surface (>800N).
14 Soil
Soil Type - Group Symbol

GW Well graded gravels and gravel-sand ML Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock
mixtures, little or no fines. flour, silty or clayey fine sands.

GP Poorly graded gravels and gravel-sand CL Inorganic clays of low to medium

mixtures, little or no fines. plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays,
silty and lean clays.
GM Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures. OL Organic silts and organic silty clays
of low plasticity.
GC Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay MH Inorganic silts, micaceous or
mixtures. diatomaceous fine sands or silts.

SW Well graded sands and gravelly sands, CH Inorganic clays of medium to high
little or no fines. plasticity.
SOIL

SP Poorly graded sands and gravelly OH Organic clays of medium to high

sands, little or no fines. plasticity.

SM Silty sand, sand-silt mixtures. PT Peat, muck and other highly organic
soils.
SC Clayey-sands, sand-clay mixtures. CI Inorganic medium plasticity clays,
gravelly clays, silty clays, lean clays.
Fill, (to be described).
15 Soil
Field Identification Procedures - Soil
(on fraction smaller than 0.4mm)

Soil cast Soil thread at Shine at Dilatancy Odour Dry strength Group
(wet soil) plastic limit plastic limit from PL symbol

SILTS/ Forms fragile cast. Cracks form Thick, crumbly None to Distinct Not None to slight ML
CLAYS when kneaded while moist thread, easily very dull significant
broken
Liquid Cast may be handled freely Thread can be Moderate None to Not Moderate CL
limit less without breaking. Can be kneaded, pointed as fine slight significant
than 50 moist without cracking. Material as a pencil, but is
adheres to the hand fragile

Cast fragile to cohesive. Material Soft, weak None to Slight to Decayed Low OL
will adhere somewhat to the hand thread very dull distinct organic matter

Moderately plastic and cohesive. Weak to medium Dull None to Not Moderate MH
Material adheres somewhat to thread. May be slight significant powdered soil
SOIL

the hand crumbly feels floury

Cast may be handled freely Very tough Very None Strong earthy High to very CH
without breaking. Can be kneaded thread. Can be glossy high. Cannot be
moist without cracking. Adheres rolled to a pin powdered by
to the hand point finger pressure

Plastic and cohesive. Feels Weak to medium Moderate None Decayed Moderate to high. OH
slightly spongy. Greasy to touch. thread. Often soft to glossy organic matter Powdered soil
and fibrous may be fibrous

Organic Readily identified by colour, odour, spongy feel and frequently by fibrous texture Pt
Soils
16 Soil
Field Identification Procedures - Soil

SOIL
17 Soil
Grain Size

0.075mm 0.2mm 0.6mm 1mm 2.36mm 4 mm 6mm 8mm 10mm 20mm 63mm

SILT/ SAND GRAVEL

CLAY

Coarse
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium
SPHERICITY & ROUNDNESS
SOIL
SPERICITY

Very angular Angular Subangular Subrounded Rounded Well Rounded

ROUNDNESS Source: Geoscience Australia, Canberra, 2003
18 Soil
Clays Vs Silts
SILT CLAY
Dilatancy Rapid reaction. Water appears on the Sluggish or no reaction. Surface of the
(Movement of Water in voids surface to give a silvery/shiny appearance samples remain lustrous. Little or no
due to shaking) when shaken. Squeezing the soil causes water appears when hand is shaken.
- None - Slow - Rapid water to disappear rapidly. Sample remains lustrous during squeezing.

Dry Strength None to low. Even oven-dry strength is High to very-high. Exceptionally high
(Cohesiveness in dry state) low. Powder easily rubs off surface of the if oven dry. Powder will not rub off the
- None - Low - Medium - High - sample. Little or no cohesive strength - surface. Crumbles with difficulty. Slakes
Very High will crumble and slake readily. slowly.

Toughness Plastic thread has little strength. Dries Plastic thread has high strength. Dries
(Plasticity in moist state) quickly. Crumbles easily as it dries below slowly. Usually stiff and tough as it dries below
- Low - Medium - High plastic range. Seldom can be rolled to 1/8” plastic range. Can easily be rolled to 1/8”
(3.175 mm) thread without cracking. (3.175mm) thread without cracking.
SOIL

Dispersion Settles out of suspension in 15-60 Settles in several hours or days unless
(Settlement in water) minutes. Sands settle in 30-60 it flocculates (rapidly precipitates out
seconds. in small clumps).

Visual Inspection & Feel Only coarsest individual silt grains are Individual grains cannot be observed by
visible to naked eye. Feels slightly gritty naked eye. Smooth & greasy when rubbed in
when rubbed in fingers. Dusts off easily. fingers. Does not dust off. Dries slowly.
Dries quickly. Must be scraped off.

Bite Test Gritty feeling between teeth. Smooth & greasy feeling between teeth.
19 Soil
Emerson Classes
Immerse Dry Aggregates in Distilled Water

Slaking No Slaking

Complete Some No Dispersion

Swelling No Swelling
Dispersion Dispersion
(Class 7) (Class 8)
(Class 1) (Class 1)

Remould at water content equivalent to field capacity, immerse in water

No Dispersion
Dispersion
(Class 3)
SOIL

Carbonate or Gypsum Absent

Carbonate or Gypsum
Present
Make up 1:5 Aggregate-Water Suspension
(Class 4)

Dispersion Flocculation
(Class 5) (Class 6)

From Emerson, W.W., 1967, A classification of soil aggregates based on their

coherence in water, in The Australian Journal of Soil Research, Volume 5, Pp 47-57
20 Soil
Soil Horizon Classification for Environmental Use

The horizon name can be assigned after careful identification and logging
O HORIZON B HORIZON
OR Organic BB Mineral soil and clay/Fe/Al rich
O1 Organic - undecomposed B1 Transition between A and B - more like B
O2 Organic - decomposing/ed B2 Illuvial concentration of clay/Fe/Al or humus
PT Wet organic matter (peat) B3 Transition between B and C - more like B
P1 Peat - partial decomposition
P2 Peat - total decomposition
A HORIZON C HORIZON
AA Surface minerals and organic matter CC Weathered rock at base or solum
A1 Bioturbated and organic rich topsoil DD Unlike CC or Fresh Rock (RR)
A2 Paler version of A1 RR Fresh Bedrock
A3 Transition between A and B - more like A
SOIL

COARSE GRAINED SOILS FINE GRAINED SOILS

% Fines Modifier % Coarse Modifier

<5 Omit, or use “trace” <5 Omit, or use “trace”

5-12 Described as “with clay/silt” as applicable 15-30 Described as “with sand/gravel” as
>12 Prefix soil as “silty/clayey” as applicable applicable
>30 Prefix soil as “sandy/gravelly” as applicable
 CLIENTS PEOPLE PERFORMANCE

GHD GEOTECHNICS
ROCK
ISSUE: JANUARY 2012

GHD GEOTECHNICS provides specialist services in Geotechnical Engineering | Geology | Field & Laboratory Testing | Hydrogeology
22 Rock
What to Record and the Order in which to Record it...

Rock Colour
§ Rock Type / Name Shades Pale/light, medium, dark e.g. pale grey,
§ Colour (wet condition) grey, dark grey
§ Grain size, shape, angularity Banded Approximately parallel bands of colour
§ Texture (crystalline, granularity, grain Streaked Randomly oriented streaks of colour
size only for sedimentary rocks) Blotched Large patches of colour (>60mm
§ Structure (banding, lineation, massive diameter)
porphyritic, schistose, bedding) Mottled Irregular patches of colour (6-60mm
§ Weathering diameter)
§ Strength Spotted Very small patches of colour (<6mm
Percentage of mineral phases? diameter)
ROCK

§
§ Natural fractures Stained Local colour variations associated
- spacing / visual with other features ie bedding, joints etc.
- fracture type
- orientation (dip, dip direction)
- infilling or coating
- shape
- roughness
- other
23 Rock
Rock Type Description
Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous

Clastic Non clastic Non clastic Pyroclastic Acid Intermediate Basic

(chemical) (organic)

Conglomerate Limestone Coal Tuff Slate Extrusive Rhyolite Trachyte Basalt

Sandstone Chert Some Ignimbrite Phyllite Andesite
Siltstone Gypsum Limestone Agglomerate Schist
Shale Salt Volcanic Quartzite
Claystone Breccia Gneiss

Intrusive Quartz Porphyry Dolerite

(medium Por- Porphyrite
grained) phyry

(coarse Syenite Gabbro

grained) Granite Diorite
ROCK

Rock Symbols
24 Rock
Grain Size Classification
Millimetres Sedimentary Rocks & Soils Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks
> 200 BOULDER
200 - 63 COBBLE
63 - 20 C RUDACEOUS
20 - 6 M (Gravels) COARSE
6 - 2.36 F
2.36 - 0.6 C ARENACEOUS
0.6 - 0.2 M (Sands) MEDIUM
0.2 - 0.075 F
ARGILLACEOUS
(Silt / Clay)
0.075 - 0.002 Silt Note: CLAY will stick to fingers when FINE
dry and SILT will NOT
ROCK

<0.002 Clay AMORPHOUS or CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE

Rock Texture, Fabric and Structure Descriptors

Texture: crystalline, glassy, porphyritic, vesicular, amygdaloidal, aphanitic, etc.
Fabric: homogeneous, anisotropic, polymictic etc.
Structure
Sedimentary: bedded, interbedded, interlaminated, laminated, folded, graded, massive, slumped,
intercalated, bioturbated etc.
Metamorphic: cleaved, foliated, schistose, gneissic, banded, lineated etc.
Igneous: massive, flow banded, vesicular, etc.
25 Rock
Rock Material Weathering
Completely Weathered CW Residual soil with rock fabric not visible.
Extremely Weathered EW The rock exhibits soil-like properties though the texture of the original
rock is still evident.
Highly Weathered HW Limonite staining or colour change affects the whole of the rock mass
and other signs of chemical or physical decomposition are evident.
Moderately Weathered MW Staining extends throughout the whole of the rock mass and the
original colour is no longer recognisable.
Slightly Weathered SW Partial staining or discolouration of the rock mass, usually by limonite,
has taken place.
Fresh Fr Rock mass unaffected by weathering.
Bedding Defect Block Shape
Very thickly bedded >2.0m Very wide >0.2m Blocky Equidimensional, three approx.
Thickly bedded 0.6-2.0m Wide 0.6-2.0m orthogonal joint sets, similar spacing.
ROCK

Medium bedded 0.2-0.6m Medium 0.2-0.6m Tabular One dimension much less than
Thinly bedded 60-200mm Closely 60-200mm the other two.
Very thinly bedded 20-60mm Very closely 20-60mm Columnar One dimension much greater
Laminated 6-20mm Extremely 6-20mm than the other two.
Thinly laminated <6mm Prismatic Two dominant orthogonal or
parallel joint sets with a third
irregular set.
Rhombic Quadrilateral whose four sides
all have the same length.
Irregular Three or more mutually oblique
sets of joints. Random joints,
Note: See Table 9.0 GHD Logging Manual low persistence.
26 Rock
Rock Material Strength & Point Load Index - Correlated to 50mm Diameter

Term Code Point Load Unconfined Field Strength Test

Strength Compressive
Index Strength
Is(50) Mpa (QuMPa)

Extremely EL <or = 0.03 <0.7 Easily remoulded by hand to a material with soil properties
Low

Very Low VL >0.03 to 0.7 - 2.4 Material crumbles under firm blows with sharp end of pick; can be peeled
<or = 0.1 with knife; too hard to cut triaxial sample by hand. Pieces up to 3cm thick
can be broken by finger pressure.

Low L >0.1 to 2.4 - 7.2 Easily scored with knife; indentations 1 mm to 3mm show in the specimen
<or = 0.3 with firm blows of the pick point; has dull sound under hammer. A piece
of core 150 mm long by 50 mm diameter may be broken by hand. Sharp
edges of core may be friable and break during handling.
ROCK

Medium M >0.3 to 7.2 - 24 Readily scored with a knife; a piece of core 150mm long by 50mm
<or = 1.0 diameter can be broken by hand with difficulty.

High H >1.0 to 24 - 72 A piece of core 150 mm long by 50 mm diameter cannot be broken by

<or = 3.0 hand but can be broken by a pick with a single firm blow; rock/hammer
rings when struck.

Very High VH >3.0 to 72 - 240 Hand specimen breaks with pick after more than one blow; rock/hammer
<or = 10.0 rings when struck.

Extremely EH >10.0 >240 Specimen requires many blows with geological pick to break
High through intact material; rock/hammer rings when struck.

Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) procedures as described in: Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. and Geomech.
Suggested method for determining point load strength, Vol. 22 number 2 1985 Pp 51-60. Note: Caution Is(50) v UCS correlations are site,
rock type and weathering grade specific.
27 Rock
Composition Estimation (Core Cross Section)

ROCK

Source: Terry. R.D& Chilinggar, G.V., 1955. Summary of “Concerning some additional aids in
studying sedimentary formations”, by M.S. Shvetsov, J. sedim. Pettrol. (25)J; 229-234, by permission.
28 Rock
Core Photograph Set-up

ROCK

Graphic Scale

Source: Part of Work Method WM 6.2.1 Issue 1 (Attachment 1 - Core box Layout)
 29

ROCK
NO CORE

1.33
NATURAL FRACTURES
Estimated Spacing Additional Data
Rock

Strength (mm)
Is(50) MPa (joints, parting, seams, zones and
veins)
50mm Fracture type, orientation, infilling or
Visual

Weathering
coating, shape, roughness, other.

0.03
0.1
0.3
1
3
10
20
40
100
300
1000

EL
VL
L
M
H
VH
EH

1.0m
Rock Defect Logging

1.33

2.0

2.00 2.0m
2.00-2.10m FZ=Fragmented Zone
2.10

2.40

2.79
2.82-2.86m CORE LOSS
DEPTH IN METRES

3.0m
3.11
NATURAL FRACTURES ONLY SHOWN

CORE LOSS
3.65

3.0

4.0m

NATURAL FRACTURE SPACING LOG

Source: Part of Work Method WM6.2.2 Issue 1.2 (Rock Core Logging)

3.65
30 Rock

RQD Measurement and Calculation Rock Quality Designation
(Note: Natural Fractures only) (RQD)

RQD is the ratio between the

length of rock recovered in pieces
L = 38cm greater than 100mm divided by
the total length of the core run, or
domain expressed as a percentage.
Total length of core run = 200cm
L = 17cm å (Length of all pieces longer than
 Length of core pieces >10cm length 100mm) x 100
RQD = x 100
L=0 Total length of core run Total length of core run / domain
No pieces
38 + 17 + 35 x 100 = 45%
>10cm RQD =
200
ROCK

L = 20cm
If core is split by natural fracture
sub-parallel to the core axis, this
technically doesn't qualify as an
L = 35cm intact piece of core
Drilling break

L=0
No recovery
After Deere, 1989. (Figure derived from Rock Engineering Source: Part of Work Method
Course Notes by Evert Hoek, 2000) WM6.2.2 Issue 1.2 (Rock Core Logging)
31 Rock
Composition Estimation

sand / shale ratio

20/’80 35/65 50/50 65/35 80/20
To be used to assist
in the estimation
of components
within laminated
sedimentary rocks
ROCK

20% 35% 50% 65% 80%

percent sand

Source: Ward, C.R. et al, Guide to cored rocks of the Sydney Basin, University Of Sydney
32 Rock
Natural Fractures (coding)

Fracture Orientation
JT Joint For vertical non-oriented cone...”Dip” angle (e.g. 5o) measured
BP Bedding Plane relative to horizontal.
Cb Cross Bed For inclined non-oriented core...”Angle” measured relative to core axis.
SS Sheared Surface For inclined oriented core...”Dip” angle and “Dip Direction: angle
SM Seam (e.g. 45o / 225o mag.).
CS Crushed Seam VT Vertical
FZ Fragmented Zone HZ or 0o Horizontal
SZ Shear Zone d / o Degrees

Infilling or Coating Shape Roughness Others

CN Clean PLN Planar POL Polished DIS Discontinuous
X Carbonaceous CU Curved SLK Slickensided OP Open
CLAY Clay UN Undulating SO Smooth CL Closed
ROCK

KT Chlorite ST Stepped RF Rough TI Tight

CA Calcite IR Irregular VR Very Rough
FE Iron Oxide
MI Micaceous
Mn Manganese Defects
Py Pyrite
QZ Quartz This important feature can control the overall engineering behaviour of a rock mass.
VE Veneer (mm) All types of natural fractures across which the core is discontinuous are noted. These
fractures include bedding plane partings, joints and other defects but exclude artificial
fractures such as drilling breaks. The nature of the defects (joints, bedding partings,
seams, zones and veins) is also noted with description, orientation, infilling or coating,
shape, roughness, thickness, etc. given generally in accordance with AS 1726. The
spacing of natural fractures excludes bedding partings unless there is evidence that
they were separated prior to drilling. This notwithstanding, bedding partings maybe
considered as planes of weakness in an engineering assessment.
33 Rock
Core Defect Roughness

Equivalent JRC
Joint Length: 200mm 1000mm
I Rough or irregular, stepped 20 11
II Smooth, stepped 14 9
III Slickensided, stepped 11 8
IV Rough or irregular, undulating 14 9
V Smooth, undulating 11 8
VI Slickensided, undulating 7 6
VII Rough or irregular, planar 2.5 2.3
VIII Smooth, planar 1.5 0.9
IX Slickensided, planar or use joint roughness coefficient 0.5 0.4
ROCK

Core Horizontal-Dip Angle

Measurement Reference
UNLESS CORE IS ORIENTED, measure
all defects and bedding in core from core
horizontal, which is normal to the long axis
of the core.
34 Rock
Outcrop Joint Roughness Coefficient

Typical Roughness Profiles (or JRC Range)

ROCK

(1:1)

IRSM Suggested Methods, ET Brown (Ed), (1981)

35 Rock
Terminology and Checklist for Rock Discontinuity Description

Spacing Orientation Persistence Type of Roughness Wall Strength Aperture Filling Seepage No. of Sets
Termination
Small scale
Extremely (cm) and
wide intermediate Clean
>6m scale (m)
Dip
amount Discontinuous Stepped
Cannot Schmidt Cannot
Very only in hammer normally be Cannot be Cannot be
cores normally Rough Surface described described
wide be described described staining
2 to 6m in cores in cores
Smooth in cores
Continuous (colour)
Wide in cores Striated
600mm Undulating
to 2m Soil infilling
Rough (describe)
Medium Smooth
200 to Striated Very open Moisture on
600mm Very high Point load >10mm rock surface
Termination Mineral
ROCK

>20m Planar test

x (outside coatings
Close Open Dripping
60 to Take No. of exposure) Rough 2.5 to 10mm (e.g. calcite, water
High Smooth chlorite,
200mm readings, of
dip 10 to 20m r (within
Other index Moderately gypsum etc.) Water flow
rock) Striated open measured Record
Very close direction/dip tests per time unit on
e.g. 015/08o 0.5 to 2.5mm spacing and
20 to Medium d (against Large scale Other- an individual orientation
60mm Report as 3 to 10m (dm) Tight specify discontinuity of sets to
discontinuity) or set of
ranges & on Waviness 0.1 to 0.5mm each other
stereo net if discontinuities and all details
Extremely Low Curvature for each set
close appropriate Visual Very tight Small flow
1 to 3m Straightness assessment <0.1mm 0.05 - 0.5 l/s
<20mm Record width
Measure
Record also amplitude Take number and Medium flow
Take number 0.5 - 5.0 l/s
of readings Very low size of and wave- of readings continuity of
<1m exposure state min infill Strong flow
state min length of
average & max feature average & max >5.0 l/s

Reference: BS5930 (1999), “Code of Practice for Site Investigations”, London

 36

ROCK
Q
Rock

Quartzolite
Alkali Feldspar Diorite
Quartzolite Gabbro
Syenite 60 60 Anorthosite
Alkali Feldspar
P l

Trachyte Andesite

ite ar
Basalt

Fe
Granite

lite ar
nod

ali
yo sp

lk
ag Ton

ali

A
Rhyolite

Rh Feld
Gra Dacite
iorit
ite
iod alit

Alk Gran ldsp

e
ac e

20 20
Syenite Monzonite Monzodiorite
Trachyte Latite Monzogabbro

10 35 65 90
Latite Andesite
A Mugearite P
10 10
50
Feldspathoid
ite

Fe

Monzonite
ite

Phonolitic
l

ld
an

Ph

Tephrite
sp
o
era
as

a
no
,B
Th

Tephritic
li

tho
e

te

Essexite
id

Phonolite
hrit
p

Sy
Te

en
ite

60 60
Foidite
Nephelinite
Leucite
Foidite
IUGS Volcanic and Plutonic Rocks

Q = Quartz
A = Alkali Feldspar
F F = Foid Minerals
P = Plagioclase Feldspar

Quartzose Q
Arenite

Sublabile Sublabile Arenite

Arenite Lithic
Sandstones

Feldspathic
nite
Lith

Are
ic A

Are

hic
eldsp
ren

Feldsp nite

Arenite athic

pat
ite

s
atho-lith
ic

Litho-f

Feld

F L
Q = Quartz F = Feldspar L = Lithic
37 Rock
Test Abbreviations Drilling Abbreviations (cont)
D Disturbed sample PD(x) Percussion down hole hammer boring
U Undisturbed sample (mm diameter) PSC(x) Percussion simultaneous casing
CS Core sample SFA Augering - solid flight
SPT Standard penetration test HFA Augering - hollow flight
SPT+ Standard penetration test - refusal HA Hand Augering
N SPT - Indicate blows/150mm and N value for Where “x” is Flushing Medium (fluid)
final 300mm (W) Water
IV Insitu vane shear test (kPa) (M) Mud (or use “B” - bentonite, or
HV Hand vane test on sample (kPa) “P” - polymer if known)
PP Pocket penetrometer test on sample (A) Air
PM Pressure meter test (F) Foam
PL Point load test (kPa) Groundwater
UCS Unconfined compressive strength test (MPa)
PK Packer test (kPa) GWO Groundwater level first observed while
ROCK

CH Constant head test drilling: Water Strike.

FH Falling head test GWL Groundwater level observed at date and
PT Pumping test time recorded.
AL Air lift (water inflow test) GNO Groundwater was not observed, due to
W Water sample drilling method, surface seepage, rain etc.
UU Unconsolidated undrained compressive GNE Groundwater was not encountered in the
strength test (kPa) borehole or test pit. The borehole or test
pit remained dry at completion of drilling
Drilling Abbreviations or excavation.
RW(x) Rotary wash boring Water Inflow (make)
RT(x) Rotary triple tube coring Water Outflow (loss)
PC(x) Percussion cable tool boring Temporary Water Level
PT(x) Percussion top hammer boring Final Water Level
38 Rock

Hole Volumes Core Barrel Sizes

Internal Volume Internal Volume
dia (mm) (L/m) dia (mm) (L/m) Type Size
10.00 0.08 260.00 53.09
20.00 0.31 270.00 57.26 Wireline Barrel - Triple NQ HQ PQ
30.00 0.71 280.00 61.58
Tube
Core Dia (mm) 45 61 83
40.00 1.26 290.00 66.05 Hole Dia (mm) 76 96 123
50.00 1.96 300.00 70.69
60.00 2.83 310.00 75.48 Conventional Barrel - NMLC HMLC 4-inch 6-inch
70.00 3.85 320.00 80.42 Triple Tube
80.00 5.03 330.00 85.53 Core Dia (mm 53 63 102 160
90.00 6.36 340.00 90.79 Hole Dia (mm) 76 100 165 210
100.00 7.85 350.00 96.21
110.00 9.50 360.00 101.79 Australian Standard AS2519-1993 - Guide to the technical evaluation
120.00 11.31 370.00 107.52 of higher rank coal deposits
ROCK

130.00 13.27 380.00 113.41

140.00 15.39 390.00 119.46
150.00 17.67 400.00 125.56
160.00 20.11 410.00 132.03
170.00 22.70 420.00 138.54
180.00 25.45 430.00 145.22
190.00 28.35 440.00 152.05
200.00 31.42 450.00 159.04
210.00 34.64 460.00 166.19
220.00 38.01 470.00 173.49
230.00 41.55 480.00 180.96
240.00 45.24 490.00 188.57
250.00 49.09 500.00 196.35
39 Rock
Batter Angles
Vertical Horizontal Angle Gradient (%) Vertical Horizontal Angle Gradient (%)
0.00 1.00 0.0 0.0 1.00 0.50 63.4 200.0
0.10 1.00 5.7 10.0 1.00 1.00 45.0 100.0
0.20 1.00 11.3 20.0 1.00 1.50 33.7 66.7
0.30 1.00 16.7 30.0 1.00 2.00 26.6 50.0
0.40 1.00 21.8 40.0 1.00 2.50 21.8 40.0
0.50 1.00 26.6 50.0 1.00 3.00 18.4 33.3
0.60 1.00 31.0 60.0 1.00 3.50 15.9 28.6
0.70 1.00 35.0 70.0 1.00 4.00 14.0 25.0
0.80 1.00 38.7 80.0 1.00 4.50 12.5 22.2
0.90 1.00 42.0 90.0 1.00 5.00 11.3 20.0
1.00 1.00 45.0 100.0 1.00 6.00 9.5 16.7
1.25 1.00 51.3 125.0 1.00 7.00 8.1 14.3
1.50 1.00 56.3 150.0 1.00 8.00 7.1 12.5
1.00 9.00 6.3
ROCK

1.75 1.00 60.3 175.0 11.1

2.00 1.00 63.4 200.0 1.00 10.00 5.7 10.0
2.25 1.00 66.0 225.0 1.00 15.00 3.8 6.7
2.50 1.00 68.2 250.00 1.00 20.00 2.9 5.0
2.75 1.00 70.0 275.00 1.00 25.00 2.3 4.0
3.00 1.00 71.6 300.00 1.00 30.00 1.9 3.3
3.25 1.00 72.9 325.00 1.00 40.00 1.4 2.5
3.50 1.00 74.1 350.00 1.00 50.00 1.1 2.0
7.75 1.00 75.1 375.00 1.00 60.00 1.0 1.7
4.00 1.00 76.0 400.00 1.00 70.00 0.8 1.4
4.25 1.00 76.8 425.00 1.00 80.00 0.7 1.3
4.50 1.00 77.5 450.00 1.00 90.00 0.6 1.1
4.75 1.00 78.1 475.00 1.00 100.00 0.6 1.0
5.00 1.00 78.7 500.00 1.00 1000.00 0.1 0.1
40 Geological Mapping
Mapping Symbols

BEDDING JOINT FABRIC

Dip Shear surface showing
dip direction
Vertical
Shear seam showing dip
direction and thickness 80mm
Horizontal

Shear zone showing dip

Overturned Bedding direction and thickness
400mm
Fault - Sense of Movement F
Crushed seam showing dip
Fault - Sense of Throw U direction and thickness 80mm
D F
ROCK

Brecciated Zone Crushed zone showing

dip direction and thickness 400mm
Antiform
Infilled seam showing dip
Synform direction and thickness 70mm

Seepage

Top of Slope or Batter

Vein showing dip direction

and thickness 200mm
 CLIENTS PEOPLE PERFORMANCE

GHD GEOTECHNICS
EXCAVATABILITY GUIDES,
FIELD METHODS & GENERAL
ISSUE: JANUARY 2012

GHD GEOTECHNICS provides specialist services in Geotechnical Engineering | Geology | Field & Laboratory Testing | Hydrogeology
 42 Excavatability Guide
Performance: Ripper D9R / D9T

EXCAVATABILITY

Reference: Caterpillar Performance Handbook (2009), Ver 39, Page 1-68 &69
 43 Excavatability Guide
Performance: Ripper D10T

EXCAVATABILITY

Reference: Caterpillar Performance Handbook (2009), Ver 39, Page 1-68 &69
 44 Excavatability Guide ESTIMATION OF EXCAVATABLITY
MODERATELY VERY EXTREMELY
WEAK WEAK MODERATELY STRONG STRONG
STRONG STRONG
BSS930:1981

EXCAVATABILITY 6

BSS930:1981
BLASTING OR HYDRAULIC

VERY LARGE
BREAKING & RIPPING (eg D9)
OR DIGGING

CORRESPONDING BLOCK SIZE IN TERMS OF MAXIMUM DIMENSION

(eg FACE SHOVEL)

2 EX
TR BLASTING

DISCONTINUITY (FRACTURE) SPACING INDEX: If (m)

EM
EL REQUIRED
YH
AR

LARGE
D
RI
PP
1 VE IN
RY G
(D
HA 11
RD or
RI HY
0.6 PP DR
HA IN AU
G LI
RD (D C

MEDIUM
9) BR
RI
PP EA

HAR
IN KI
G NG
(D

DD
8) -D
9

IGG

)
0.2

IN
G
EA

(e g
SY
SMALL

RI

CA
PP

T
IN

24
0.1 G

5
(D

BA
6-
D7

CK
)

HO
0.06

E
or
VERY SMALL

FA
C
E
SH
O
VE
EASY L
DIGGING

0.02
0.1 0.3 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0
POINT LOAD INDEX: Is(50) (MPa)

Reference: Pettifer & Fookes, 1994

 45 Field Methods Lugeon patterns for various occurrences during testing:
Packer Test Guides Their interpretation and percentage occurrences
TEST PRESSURES LUGEON PATTERN CHARACTERISTICS WHICH OF THE LUGEON PERCENTAGE OF
LUGEONS CALCULATED OF THE PATTERN, & VALUES IN THE PATTERN ACTUAL CASES IN
FOR EACH 10 MIN RUN INTERPRETATION SHOULD BE USED AS EACH GROUP
(Shown in approx OF IT THE REPORTED
(Relative magnitudes shown) (Summarised from Table 2
FIELD METHODS relative magnitudes) PERMEABILITY?
when the reported permeability is
1.2 or 3 Lugeons 4 or more Lugeons
GROUP A - LAMINAR FLOW
1ST TEN MINUTE RUN ALL 5 LUGEONS ARE
2ND ABOUT EQUAL USE THE AVERAGE OF 78% 5%
3RD HENCE LAMINAR FLOW THE 5 LUGEONS
4TH (To the nearest
5TH whole number)

GROUP A - TURBULENT FLOW

LOWEST LUGEON VALUE
1ST TEN MINUTE RUN OCCURRING AT HIGHEST
2ND PRESSURE, HENCE USE THE LUGEON 13% 53%
3RD TURBULENT FLOW VALUE FOR THE
4TH HIGHEST PRESSURE
5TH
GROUP C - DIALATION
HIGHEST LUGEON
1ST TEN MINUTE RUN
OCCURRING AT HIGHEST USE THE LUGEON
2ND PRESSURE, HENCE VALUE FOR THE 1% 9%
3RD DILATION LOWEST (OR MEDIUM)
4TH PRESSURES
5TH

GROUP D - WASH-OUT, etc LUGEONS INCREASING

1ST TEN MINUTE RUN AS TEST PROCEEDS
2ND HENCE THE TEST IS USE THE HIGHEST
CAUSING CHANGES TO LUGEON VALUE 2% 21%
3RD
THE FOUNDATION (Unless special reasons
4TH
require otherwise)
5TH
GROUP E - VOID FILLING LUGEONS DECREASING
1ST TEN MINUTE RUN AS TEST PROCEEDS
2ND HENCE THE TEST IS USUALLY USE THE
3RD GRADUALLY FILLING 6% 12%
FINAL LUGEON
4TH EXTENSIVE VOIDS VALUE
5TH
THIS TABLE GIVES GENERAL PATTERNS ONLY, DISCRETION IS NECESSARY
IN ADAPTING THESE TO THE INEVITABLE VARIATIONS MET IN PRACTICE

Houlsby A. C. (1977), “Foundation grouting for dams - Part 1 Investigation”, Ancold Bulletin, Issue No. 47, Page 10.
 46

FIELD METHODS
Field Methods
Standpipe Piezometer Installation

NOTE: Representative only.

Refer to project specific
requirements
 47

FIELD METHODS 0o

-40o
-30o
-20o
-10o

100o
100o

-5
0

-20
-10
0

110o
110o

-5
0

120o
120o
Field Methods

130o
130o
140o

140o
Magnetic Declination (calculated 2005)

10

150o
150o

10

15

160o
160o

10

20
15

170o
170o

180o
180o
0o

+40o
+30o
+20o
+10o

Contours of Magnetic Declination in degrees in red

Overlay MGA Zone Numbers
To convert bearings in MAGNETIC NORTH to TRUE NORTH:
True North = Magnetic North + Magnetic Declination
Source: Raw data from Geoscience Australia

Declinations East of North are Positive and those West of North are Negative
 48 General
Core Orientation

Core dip direction angle.

Related to reference line
measured clockwise, looking
b down core
Reference line
Maximum dip vector
GENERAL

Discontinuity
Core dip angle measured
in relation to core axis

a
Maximum

Reference line
dip vector
b

Section parallel to
maximum dip vector

Core Dip Direction & Dip Angles

Source: Part of Work Method WM 6.2.4 Issue 1

 49 General
Joint Influence on Slope Stability
PLANAR
Joint Set A

Joint Set

Average Joint Friction Angle

Failure Envelope

WEDGE
GENERAL

Joint Set A
Joint Set B
Joint Set A

Average Joint Friction Angle

Failure Envelope
Joint Set B

TOPPLING

Joint Set C

Toppling
Region
+30o
= Poles
 50 General
Geological Time Chart

Ma
Cenozoic Neogene Pleistocene.......... 1.8 (Quaternary)
Pliocene
Miocene.............. 23.03
Palaeogene Eocene
Paleocene............ 65.5
Metozoic Cretaceous .............................145.5
GENERAL

Jurassic .............................199.6
Triassic .............................251

Palaeozoic Permian .............................299

Carboniferous .............................359.2

Devonian .............................416
Silurian .............................443.7
Ordovician .............................488.3
Cambrian .............................542

Pre-Cambrian .............................542 to >3600

Source: Gradstein, Ogg & Smith, 2004, A Geological Time Scale

 51 General
Schmidt Hammer Strength Correlation

GENERAL
0
0
0
0.10
0.15

1
10

INCHES
0.20

2
MILLIMETRES 0.25
20

CENTIMETRES

1
0.30

3
30
0.35
4 0.40
40

0.50
0.60
5

2
50

0.70
0.80
0.90
CRACK WIDTH (mm)

1.00
3

1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
10
100

5.00