C++ Plus Data Structures

Nell Dale
David Teague
Chapter 1
Software Engineering Principles

Slides by Sylvia Sorkin, Community College of Baltimore County - Essex Campus

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 Programming Life Cycle Activities
• Problem analysis understand the problem

• Requirements definition specify what program will do

• High- and low-level design how it meets requirements

• Implementation of design code it

• Testing and verification detect errors, show correct

• Delivery turn over to customer

• Operation use the program

• Maintenance change the program 2

 Software Engineering
• A disciplined approach to the design,
production, and maintenance of
computer programs
• that are developed on time and within
cost estimates,
• using tools that help to manage the
size and complexity of the resulting
software products.
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 An Algorithm Is . . .

• A logical sequence of discrete steps

that describes a complete solution to
a given problem computable in a finite
amount of time.

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 Goals of Quality Software

• It works.

• It can be read and understood.

• It can be modified.

• It is completed on time and within budget.

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Detailed Program Specification

• Tells what the program

must do, but not how it
does it.

• Is written documentation
about the program.

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Detailed Program Specification
Includes
• Inputs

• Outputs

• Processing requirements

• Assumptions

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 Abstraction

• A model of a complex system that

includes only the details essential to
the perspective of the viewer of the
system.

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 Information Hiding

• Hiding the details of a function or data

structure with the goal of controlling
access to the details of a module or
structure.

PURPOSE: To prevent high-level designs

from depending on low-level design details
that may be changed.

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 Two Approaches to Building Manageable
Modules
FUNCTIONAL OBJECT-ORIENTED
DECOMPOSITION DESIGN

Divides the problem Identifies various

into more easily handled objects composed of
subtasks, until the data and operations,
functional modules that can be used
(subproblems) can together to solve
be coded. the problem.
FOCUS ON: processes FOCUS ON: data objects
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 Functional Design Modules
Main

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 Object-Oriented Design
A technique for developing a program in which
the solution is expressed in terms of objects --
self- contained entities composed of data and
operations on that data.
cin cout

>> <<

get Private data setf Private data

. .
. .
. .

ignore

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 More about OOD
l Languages supporting OOD include: C++, Java,
Smalltalk, Eiffel, and Object-Pascal.

l A class is a programmer-defined data type and

objects are variables of that type.

l In C++, cin is an object of a data type (class) named

istream, and cout is an object of a class ostream.
Header files iostream and fstream contain
definitions of stream classes.

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Procedural vs. Object-Oriented Code
“Read the specification of the
software you want to build.
Underline the verbs if you are after
procedural code, the nouns if you
aim for an object-oriented program.”

Grady Booch, “What is and Isn’t Object

Oriented Design,” 1989.

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 Program Verification
• Program Verification is the process of
determining the degree to which a
software product fulfills its specifications.

SPECIFICATIONS
Inputs
Outputs
Processing
Requirements
PROGRAM
Assumptions

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 Verification vs. Validation
Program verification asks,
“Are we doing the job right?”

Program validation asks,

“Are we doing the right job?”

B. W. Boehm, Software Engineering

Economics, 1981.

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 Program Testing
• Testing is the process of executing a
program with various data sets
designed to discover errors.

DATA SET 1

DATA SET 2

DATA SET 3

DATA SET 4

...
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 Keyboard and Screen I/O
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
input data output data

executing
Keyboard program Screen

cin cout

(of type istream) (of type ostream)

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 namespace
• In slides that follow, assume the
statement:
using namespace std;

• We explain namespace in Chapter 2

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 <iostream> is header file
• for a library that defines 3 objects

• an istream object named cin (keyboard)

• an ostream object named cout (screen)

• an ostream object named cerr (screen)

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 Insertion Operator ( << )
• The insertion operator << takes 2
operands.

• The left operand is a stream expression,

such as cout.

• The right operand is an expression

describing what to insert into the output
stream. It may be of simple type, or a
string, or a manipulator (like endl).
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 Extraction Operator ( >> )
• Variable cin is predefined to denote an input
stream from the standard input device ( the
keyboard ).

• The extraction operator >> called “get from” takes

2 operands. The left operand is a stream
expression, such as cin. The right operand is a
variable of simple type.

• Operator >> attempts to extract the next item from

the input stream and store its value in the right
operand variable.
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 Extraction Operator >>
“skips” (reads but does not store anywhere)
leading whitespace characters
(blank, tab, line feed, form feed, carriage return)
before extracting the input value from the
stream (keyboard or file).
To avoid skipping, use function get to read the
next character in the input stream.
cin.get(inputChar);

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#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main( )
{ // USES KEYBOARD AND SCREEN I/O
int partNumber;
float unitPrice;
cout << “Enter part number followed by return : “
<< endl ; // prompt
cin >> partNumber ;
cout << “Enter unit price followed by return : “
<< endl ;
cin >> unitPrice ;
cout << “Part # “ << partNumber // echo
<< “at Unit Cost: $ “ << unitPrice << endl ;
return 0;
} 24
 Disk files for I/O
#include <fstream>
input data output data

disk file executing disk file

“A:\myInfile.dat” program “A:\myOut.dat”

your variable your variable

(of type ifstream) (of type ofstream)

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 For File I/O
• use #include <fstream>
• choose valid variable identifiers for your files and
declare them

• open the files and associate them with disk names

• use your variable identifiers with >> and <<

• close the files

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 Statements for using file I/O
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;
ifstream myInfile; // declarations
ofstream myOutfile;

myInfile.open(“A:\\myIn.dat”); // open files

myOutfile.open(“A:\\myOut.dat”);

myInfile.close( ); // close files

myOutfile.close( );
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 What does opening a file do?
• associates the C++ identifier for your file with the
physical (disk) name for the file
• if the input file does not exist on disk, open is not
successful
• if the output file does not exist on disk, a new file
with that name is created
• if the output file already exists, it is erased
• places a file reading marker at the very beginning
of the file, pointing to the first character in it

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#include <fstream>
using namespace std
int main( )
{ // USES FILE I/O
int partNumber;
float unitPrice;
ifstream inFile; // declare file variables
ofstream outFile;
inFile.open(“input.dat”); //open files
outFile.open(“output.dat”);
inFile >> partNumber ;
inFile >> unitPrice ;
outFile << “Part # “ << partNumber // echo
<< “at Unit Cost: $ “ << unitPrice << endl ;
return 0;
} 29
 Stream Failure
• When a stream enters the fail state, further I/O
operations using that stream are ignored. But the
computer does not automatically halt the program or
give any error message.

• Possible reasons for entering fail state include:

• invalid input data (often the wrong type),
• opening an input file that doesn’t exist,
• opening an output file on a diskette that is already
full or is write-protected.

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#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std
int main( )
{ // CHECKS FOR STREAM FAIL STATE

ifstream inFile;
inFile.open(“input.dat”); // try to open file
if ( !inFile )
{
cout << “File input.dat could not be opened.”;
return 1;
}
...
return 0;
} 31
 Various Types of Errors

• Design errors occur when specifications

are wrong

• Compile errors occur when syntax is wrong

• Run-time errors result from incorrect

assumptions, incomplete understanding of
the programming language, or
unanticipated user errors.

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 Robustness

• Robustness is the ability of a program to

recover following an error; the ability of a
program to continue to operate within its
environment.

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 An Assertion
• Is a logical proposition that is either true or
false (not necessarily in C++ code).
EXAMPLES
studentCount is greater than 0
sum is assigned && count > 0
response has value ‘y’ or ‘n’
partNumber == 5467

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 Preconditions and Postconditions

• The precondition is an assertion describing

what a function requires to be true before
beginning execution.

• The postcondition describes what must be

true at the moment the function finishes
execution.

• The caller is responsible for ensuring the

precondition, and the function code must
ensure the postcondition. FOR EXAMPLE . . .
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void PrintList ( ofstream& dataFile, UnsortedType list)
// Pre: list has been initialized.
// dataFile is open for writing.
// Post: Each component in list has been written to dataFile.
// dataFile is still open.
{ using namespace std;
int length;
ItemType item;

list.ResetList();
length = list.LengthIs();
for (int counter = 1; counter <= length; counter++)
{
list.GetNextItem(item);
item.Print(dataFile);
}
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}
 Another Example
void GetRoots (float a, float b, float c,
float& Root1, float& Root2 )
// Pre: a, b, and c are assigned.
// a is non-zero, b*b - 4*a*c is non-zero.
// Post: Root1 and Root2 are assigned
// Root1 and Root2 are roots of quadratic with coefficients a, b, c
{
using namespace std;
float temp;
temp = b * b - 4.0 * a * c;
Root1 = (-b + sqrt(temp) ) / ( 2.0 * a );

Root2 = (-b - sqrt(temp) ) / ( 2.0 * a );

return;
}
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 A Walk-Through
• Is a verification method using a team to
perform a manual simulation of the program
or design, using sample test inputs, and
keeping track of the program’s data by hand.

• Its purpose is to stimulate discussion about

the programmer’s design or implementation .

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 Tasks within each test case:

• determine inputs that demonstrate the goal.

• determine the expected behavior for the

input.

• run the program and observe results.

• compare expected behavior and actual

behavior. If they differ, we begin debugging.

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 Integration Testing

• Is performed to integrate program modules

that have already been independently unit
tested.
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 Integration Testing Approaches

TOP-DOWN
BOTTOM-UP

Ensures correct overall Ensures individual modules

design logic. work together correctly,
beginning with the
lowest level.
USES: placeholder USES: a test driver to call
module “stubs” to test the functions being tested.
the order of calls.
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