Name: Sadia Riaz. Level: B.ED(2.

5
years) Rollno:0000374158|05|16BH|1015
Semester :Spring 2023 . Code : 6436

Q#1
Which practical skills and abilities are necessary for science students? How
these skills can be measured at secondary level? (20)

Basic science skills that students need Observe.

 Observing the world is the most basic science skill for students.
 Classify. Classification learning skills teach students how to classify the
world around them.
 Measure.
 Guess.
 Control variable.
 Interpretation.
 Communicate.
 To draw conclusions Basic science skills that students need There's a lot to learn in
science class, but the skills listed below will provide the foundation for everything
else that comes later:

Observe. Observing the world is the most basic science skill for students.
Developing observational skills involves teaching students to use their senses to
see the big picture and the smallest details.

Classify. Classification learning skills teach students how to classify the world
around them. It can be as simple as identifying the number of legs on an insect or it
can be as complex as accurately noting species of plants and animals.

Measure. Measurement is a basic science skill. In most cases, this begins with
teaching young students how to use objects such as rulers or beakers. As students
grow, they can learn more complex measurement skills using advanced
mathematical equipment and equations.

Guess. At this stage, students begin to learn how to use previous experiments and
observations to make new predictions. This skill requires students to develop
critical thinking skills and can be as simple as encouraging students to guess what
will happen in an experiment.

Control variable. Monitoring and controlling variables is an advanced concept.

One of the best ways to help students understand ideas is to discuss potential
variables before you start experimenting. Conduct the experiment and ask students
to record the results. Then ask students to change one variable at a time to see how
the results change.

Interpretation. Recording experimental results is one thing, but teaching students

to interpret the results is more difficult. Encourage students to analyze the results
and think carefully about any patterns or trends they may identify.

Communicate. Teaching students to communicate their findings not only

develops skills but can also help them assimilate and analyze the information they
have collected. The important skill here is teaching students to communicate
clearly using words, diagrams, graphs, and other means.
 To draw conclusions. Finally, students must develop the ability to interpret
information and draw their own conclusions. This skill can be difficult to develop
in young students. This skill is developed by teaching students to use reasoning
skills to convert experimental results into meaningful conclusions.

If students are having difficulty understanding their results, this can be a great
opportunity for them to continue their research. Teaching scientific method
Encouraging students to develop science skills isn't just useful for science lessons!
These skills will be useful throughout their academic and professional lives, and
starting early can make a big difference in their success.

One of the easiest ways to develop students' science skills is to teach them the
scientific method. The scientific method requires students to think critically and
apply their skills to real-life situations.

For example, a simple experiment can encourage young students to observe and
classify plant life around school. A more complex experiment might require older
students to observe and record plant growth while controlling things like lighting
and watering cycles. The real goal here is to teach the scientific method and help
students develop general science skills. How to develop science skills in students
The best way to develop students' science skills is through hands-on experiments,
activities, and projects.

Hands-on learning helps students develop and apply their science skills in more
meaningful ways than purely theoretical courses. Practicing is also fun, helping to
improve comprehension, retention, and recall. Put these elements together and your
hands-on experience will help students learn important science skills they can use
to achieve better results throughout their lives! The list of skills above is arranged
from easiest to teach to most difficult.

The skills that top the list are more suitable for younger students and can be taught
through simple activities and experiments. As students gain confidence and master
new skills, you can go through the list and introduce activities that use multiple
skills at once. The goal is to equip your students with scientific skills they can use
at any time to solve problems at school, work, and in life!
1. Science is a verb Many people who did not use science as part of their careers,
or who had bad experiences in school, may come away from science with the
unfair impression that it is simply a collection of facts and Data need to be
remembered.

But in reality, nothing could be further from the truth. If science were just a
collection of static facts and figures, we would all still believe that the Earth is flat,
that it is at the center of the universe, and that the stars are just small windows into
the fire great of hell. that lies further. One of the most important things to
understand about science is that it is constantly undergoing a process of
questioning and self-renewal; always seek to find what is wrong or outdated and
integrate it with new discoveries. This is why we say that children should learn
more science, not that children should learn more science. These two things are not
the same. Science is not a passive process of receiving other people's accumulation
of facts. Science is a method of finding truth, despite ever-changing paradigms and
beliefs. It is desire and curiosity that drive individuals to critically question their
world and identify the underlying structures.

2. Science opens doors The last thing you need to understand about science
before learning 8 reasons why kids should do more science is that scientific
research does not limit the opportunities that life offers but expands them.

Q.2
Explain the nature of affective objectives and abilities with examples
from any science subject. (20)
Introduce

The affective domain (from Latin Affectus, meaning “emotions”) encompasses a

multitude of concepts, such as attitudes, values, beliefs, opinions, preferences, and
motivations. Research in the field of emotions is limited by Confusing definitions
of emotional constructs Underdeveloped assessment practices, including large-
scale construction Affective variables are “added” to studies of cognitive learning
Although the affective aspects of science learning have long been recognized as
important, they have received less attention from researchers than the cognitive
aspects.

Reasons for this imbalance include the "archetypal image of science itself", where
reason is separate from feeling, and the "long cognitive tradition" of science
education research (Alsop & Watts, 2003, p. 1044). A contemporary view holds
that “the affective dimension is not just a simple catalyst but also a necessary
condition for learning” (Perrier & Nsengiyumva, 2003, p. 1124). Attitude and
motivation are indeed the most important elements of the emotional domain in
science teaching.

Question

 How can the relationship between the affective domain and the cognitive
domain be made clearer for science teachers and science education
researchers?

 How can an understanding of the nature of science (i.e. that science reflects
the culture and personality of scientists) be used to draw attention to the
affective domain in science education learning and research in science
education?

 What are the potential contributions of affective constructs, beyond

attitudes and motivation, to improving science teaching and learning?
Attitude Attitude is often defined as a tendency to respond positively or
negatively to things, people, places, events, and ideas. After nearly three
 decades of strong growth, research on attitudes in science education began
to decline in the 1990s, in part because attitude researchers seemed to have
reached an empirical plateau.

Experience.

Many studies have produced results that provide little guidance for improving
classroom practice or advancing research in the field. A second reason for this
decline is that the research paradigms in social psychology and educational
psychology that once influenced science education research have shifted from a
behavioral to a more cognitive orientation ( Richardson, 1996). This shift in
theoretical focus linked attitudes to emotions, or feelings and beliefs to cognitions.
With the separation of attitudes and cognitions and the emergence of beliefs as a
concept to explain learners' actions, attitudes become less important. Research on
students' attitudes toward science is once again receiving increasing attention. The
worrying decline in enrollment in science courses at secondary and post-secondary
levels, especially in Western countries, the disdain for science in schools among
many students and the The promise of new research methods [relating to
physiological manifestations] has sparked renewed interest in science. science.
attitude research (Osborne, Simon and Collins, 1993).

Attitudes have been defined in many ways and are often used interchangeably
with terms such as interests, values, motives, and opinions. Values are more
complex and broader than attitudes and tend to be more enduring. The relationship
between beliefs, attitudes, and behavior is presented as a causal model in Ajzen and
Fishbein's theory of reasoned action and planned behavior. Theory-based strategies
for changing attitudes can be addressed by manipulating the variables of the
question: who (communicator) says what (message) to whom (audience) with what
effect (change attitude)? Attitudes and attitude changes can be assessed using self-
report scales, drawings, personal interviews, photographs, personal diaries, and
physiological expressions, including personal posture, gestures, and trait.

Behavioral components are present in many, if not most, instructional plans,

whether explicitly stated or not (Miller, 2005). Question about attitude What
attitudes toward science need to change? What educational models can be used to
shape and change attitudes? What ethical concerns should be considered when
engaging students in attitude change teaching? What distinguishes attitude change
from indoctrination (e.g., greenwashing)? How can instructors protect against
undesirable behavioral learning outcomes?

Motivation

Motivation is the internal state that arouses, directs, and sustains behavior.
Research on motivation by science education researchers attempts to explain why
students strive to achieve specific goals when learning science, how hard they
strive, how hard they strive for how long and what feelings and emotions
characterize them during that process. As science education researchers respond to
current national initiatives to promote student achievement in science, motivation
is increasingly being emphasized. Attitude affects motivation, which in turn affects
learning and ultimately behavior. This sequence is suitable for studying learning in
many scientific contexts, although the relationships between these variables may
be more complex than this basic sequence suggests. Historically, educational
science researchers have applied four motivational orientations when studying
learning: behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, and social. The behavioral orientation
to motivation focuses on concepts such as incentives and reinforcement. The
humanistic orientation of motivation emphasizes the student's ability to develop
personally, the freedom to choose his or her destiny, and the desire for success and
excellence.

A cognitive orientation to motivation emphasizes students' goals, plans,

expectations, and attributions. A social orientation to motivation emphasizes
students' identities and their interpersonal relationships within the communities
that exist within and outside of school.

According to Brophy (1988), learning motivation is “the tendency of students to

find learning activities meaningful and useful and to try to obtain expected learning
benefits from them” (pp. 205-206 ). Important motivational concepts examined by
researchers include intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, goal orientation, self-
determination, self-efficacy, and evaluation anxiety. The motivation to do
something for its own sake is primarily internal, while the motivation to do it as a
means to an end is extrinsic. Students often complete tasks for both intrinsic and
extrinsic reasons. People often distinguish between learning goals and performance
goals (e.g., Cavallo, Rozman, & Potter, 2004). Students have learning goals
focused on challenging and mastering a scientific task. Students with achievement
goals are often concerned with gaining social status, pleasing teachers, and
avoiding “extra” work. Self-determination is the ability to have certain choices and
degrees of control over what we do and how we do it (Reeve, Hamm, & Nix,
2003). When undergraduate science students have the opportunity to help
determine what their educational activities will be, they are more likely to benefit
(Glynn & Koballa, 2005). Bandura (1997) defines self-efficacy as “the belief in the
ability to organize and carry out the actions necessary to produce certain results”
(p. 3). When science education researchers use the term, they are referring to
students' confidence in their ability to succeed in science (Koballa & Glynn, in
press).

All students feel anxious at times, especially in college science classes (Seymore,
1992). In fact, a moderate level of anxiety is good because it helps promote
learning (Cassady & Johnson, 2002). The Science Motivation Questionnaire
(SMQ) assesses six components of motivation: intrinsically motivated science
learning, extrinsically motivated science learning, relevance of science learning to
goals individuality, responsibility (self-determination) in science learning,
confidence (self-efficacy) in science learning. and anxiety about scientific
evaluation (Glynn & Koballa, 2006).

Question about motivation Does stimulating interest and curiosity about scientific
phenomena increase students' motivation to learn? What instructional strategies
can be used in science classrooms to encourage students to set and pursue personal
goals (learner autonomy)? How can we design instruction to help students
understand that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can reinforce each other? How
can we design instruction to give students some degree of control over what they
learn and how they learn? What types of assessment tasks (other than tests) can be
used in science classes to reduce assessment anxiety?
Definition of emotional domain The affective domain describes learning objectives
that emphasize emotional nuances, feelings, or levels of acceptance or rejection.
Affective goals vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but
internally consistent qualities of personality and consciousness. We found many of
these goals in the literature, expressed as interests, attitudes, preferences, values,
and sets of emotions or biases. [according to Krathwohl et al., 1964] Below is a
description of each step of the classification, starting from the most basic level.
(Excerpt from Krathwohl's Taxonomy of Emotion Domains) Reception is
awareness or sensitivity to the existence of certain ideas, materials or phenomena
and willingness to accept them.

Examples include: discern, accept, listen (give), respond. Reflection engages to

some extent with relevant ideas, documents or phenomena by actively responding
to them.

For example: comply, follow, praise, volunteer, spend free time, cheer.
Appreciation is wanting others to value certain ideas, materials, or phenomena.

Examples include: measured capacity building, waiver, subsidy, support, debate.

Organizing involves aligning value with already held values and integrating it into
an internally coherent and harmonious philosophy.

For example: discuss, theory, build, balance, test. Characterization according to a

value or set of values involves acting consistently in accordance with the values
one has internalized.

Examples include: reconsider, demand, appreciate, avoid, resist, manage, resolve.

What is the relevance of the emotional field in education? If we try to apply
Krathwohl et al. In our teaching, we encourage students to not only take in
information at the lower end of the emotional scale. We want them to reflect on
what they learn, value it, organize it, and maybe even express themselves as
science students, science students, or scientists. We are also interested in students'
attitudes toward science, scientists, science learning, and specific science topics.
We aim to find teaching methods that encourage and engage students.

Affective topics in educational literature include attitudes, motivation,

communication styles, classroom management styles, learning styles, use of
technology in the classroom, and nonverbal communication. It is also important to
discourage students with subtle actions or communications that directly touch the
emotional realm and discourage student participation. In the educational literature,
almost all authors begin their articles by asserting that the affective domain is
necessary for learning, yet it is the least studied, most often overlooked. , the most
vague and difficult to evaluate of the three areas. In formal classroom instruction,
the majority of a teacher's effort is typically devoted to the cognitive aspects of
teaching and learning and the majority of classroom time is devoted to cognitive
outcomes.

Likewise, assessing cognitive learning is simple, but assessing affective outcomes

is difficult. Therefore, it is useful to recognize the potential to enhance students'
learning abilities by tapping into the affective domain. Similarly, students may
encounter emotional barriers to learning that cannot be recognized or resolved
using purely cognitive approaches. As science teachers, we naturally emphasize the
cognitive domain in our teaching. After all, students think and learn with their
minds (we hope!). However, the affective domain can significantly enhance,
inhibit, or even prevent student learning.

Q.3

What are the projective techniques? In which situation these might be used at
secondary class level? (20)
Projective techniques and their applications represent an important intersection of
psychoanalytic theory, clinical psychology, social psychology, and cultural
anthropology. These instruments include a wide variety of materials, instructions,
and rules of interpretation, but despite this diversity, there are certain common
features that distinguish them from other personality measures, e.g. inventory,
evaluate or examine the situation.

The most prominent feature of the projective technique involves the presentation
of a relatively unstructured task. This lack of structure involves ambiguous or
vaguely defined stimuli and a relatively unlimited set of response options through
which subjects can assign meaning to the stimulus material. It is generally accepted
that by choosing among a multitude of alternatives in structuring or interpreting
ambiguous stimuli, the subject reveals fundamental and important aspects of
himself.

Typically, such devices are considered to be particularly sensitive to latent or

unconscious human components, and the subject is kept minimally aware of the
test target. Response data is often very rich and often involves fantastical or
imaginary creations. The tools are highly multidimensional; that is, they aim to
provide information regarding a large number of personality dimensions. Historical
development The origins and early development of projective tests are closely
linked to the development of psychoanalysis. Indeed, Freud's dream theory and
dream interpretation techniques can be considered the most important source of
dominant ideas in the field.

Around the same time, Jung's Studies on Magnetic Associations (1904–1909)

appeared, which also had a great influence on the development of projective tests.
The Rorschach test, the most famous projective test, was developed by a student of
Jung and was certainly influenced by psychoanalytic theory and practice. The term
"projective technique" became associated with these instruments primarily after the
works of Henry A. Murray and L. K. Frank in the 1930s; however, the
relationship between the concept of projection and these tools is far from exact (see
Lindzey 1961). Indeed, we might say that “projection,” the term classically used in
psychoanalysis today, is rarely directly related to projective technical responses. In
the two decades after World War I, aptitude and aptitude tests saw very rapid
development and adoption, typified by the Stanford-Binet tests and the group tests.
different.

After World War II, similar developments took place in the field of personality
testing, with projective techniques receiving the greatest attention. It was during
this period that the Projection Engineering Society was founded, which included
those involved in the research and application of these devices.

At the same time, the Journal of Projection Engineering appeared, a magazine that
published only articles about these tools. In addition, a large number of articles and
books related to these techniques have been published. Even for a single
instrument, such as the Rorschach test, the entire bibliography will now include
over a thousand articles.

Additionally, in most modern psychology graduate programs, the inclusion of one

or more courses in projective techniques has become standard. The development
and application of these tools is closely linked to clinical practice. For the most
part, those attracted to these devices work in clinical settings, often with disturbed
populations, and often in situations where individual subjects may be subjected to
relatively intensive study. and details.

Additionally, these techniques are considered most appealing and useful by people
who are heavily influenced by psychoanalytic theory or some holistic theory. An
emphasis on objectivity, precision, and psychological elegance rarely characterizes
work with these devices. The main techniques and their classification With these
general observations on the nature and origins of projective techniques, it may be
useful to give a specific identification of the tools with representative illustrations.
There are many different approaches to classifying these tests (Lindzey 1959), but
the most useful approach focuses on the nature of the response evoked by the
subject.

On this basis, projective techniques can be grouped into the following categories:
(a) conjunction, (b) construction, (c) completion, (d) selection or ordering, and
(e ) expression. Linking techniques Associative techniques include tools that tend
to minimize idea generation and emphasize immediacy of response. The subject is
asked not to think but to respond to the stimulus with the first word, image, or
perception that comes to mind. Word association. An old and well-known example
is the word association technique, which involves the oral presentation of a series
of discrete words, one after another, to which the subject is asked to respond with
the first word that comes to mind.

Typically, thematic association and reaction time to each word will be recorded.
Although many word lists have been used, the most common are the original list
by Kent and Rosanoff (1910), used as a psychiatric screening tool, and the more
recent list by Rapaport, Schafer and Gill (1945–1946).

The latter is similar to Jung's (e.g., 1904-1909), which contains many words with
psychoanalytic meanings, especially related to psychosexual conflicts. Depending
on the user's specific goals, scoring and interpretation may involve analyzing the
content of the associations, in terms of their relevance to the motivations or areas
of conflict specifically such as dominance or aggression, or even judgments about
the general level of adjustment. must be achieved, the subject's responses can be
compared with the typical performance of the psychiatric and normal groups on the
same word list. In addition to their content, associations are often analyzed in terms
of the proportion of common responses, temporal distance, and association
disruptions, such as repetition of the stimulus word or the establishment of
associations extremely distant system.

Projective techniques are often used in individual or small group interviews. They
combine several different research methods. Among the most commonly used are:
Check word association Check the end of the sentence Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT) Third-person techniques Although seemingly simple, projective techniques
often require the expertise of a trained psychologist to help design the tests and
interpret them accurately.
There are several ways to use word association tests:

A list of words or phrases can be presented in random order to respondents, who

are asked to say or write the word or phrase that comes to mind; Respondents were
asked what words or phrases come to mind when they hear certain brand names;
Similarly, respondents can be asked about slogans and what they suggest;
Respondents were asked to describe an inanimate object or product by attributing
“human characteristics” to it or by associating descriptive adjectives with it. For
example, a group of tourism professionals working on a strategic marketing plan
for their community was asked to come up with personality traits or "people traits"
for the villages and towns in their community. Surname: Village Serenity Careful
as beautiful as a painting Friendly Accessible Reliable Cities Rampage
Precipitation free Modern Cold Most tourism industry representatives come from
cities and argue strongly that urban areas have historically been neglected in
promotional campaigns.

As a result of this and other activities, they realized that rural areas are an
important part of a destination's overall appeal and should be considered a key
element of any marketing campaign. any. In the sentence completion method,
respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete their thoughts.
These sentences are often in the third person and tend to be somewhat vague. For
example, the following sentences will have striking differences in how they are
completed depending on the respondent's personality: “A beach vacation is…”
“Spending a vacation in the mountains is…” “Golf is for…” “The average person
considering skiing…” “The people who visit the museum are…” In general,
sentence completion tests are easier to interpret because the answers provided will
be more detailed than word association tests. However, their purpose is also clearer
to respondents and can lead to less honest responses.

Q.4
Discuss the use of assessment information for diagnostic and predictive
purposes. (20)

Diagnostic assessment
Diagnostic assessment is a form of pre-assessment or pre-testing in which teachers
can assess students' strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills before teaching
them. These reviews often have low odds and are usually not included in the score.
A similar assessment can be conducted after instruction to determine whether
students have achieved the learning objectives required for the course. Through
this form of assessment, teachers can plan meaningful and effective instruction and
provide students with personalized learning experiences. Written by students, a
diagnostic assessment is a tool that allows teachers to better understand what
students already know about a topic when it is submitted before the start of the
course.

Diagnostic assessment is used to evaluate the student's current situation, i.e.

intellectually, emotionally, and ideologically. Diagnostic assessment refers to an
assignment written at the beginning and end of the course. Post-course assessments
can be compared to pre-course assessments and can show students' potential
progress in certain areas.

These assessments allow instructors to tailor the program to meet the needs of
current and future students. What is the purpose of the diagnostic evaluation?
Educators can facilitate diagnostic assessments to assess levels of understanding or
skills before starting a new unit of study. The purpose of diagnostic assessment is
to help identify gaps in learning and provide information about understanding that
can be addressed in future instruction.

Diagnostic assessments are designed to measure a student's strengths,

weaknesses, knowledge levels, and skills. These assessments aim to answer: What
do students already know about a particular topic? What are common diagnostic
assessment tools? There are several methods and tools for designing diagnostic
assessments. Likert scale surveys are one of the most popular tools. Students were
asked to choose a rating from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” when
reviewing course information. A more intuitive diagnostic assessment tool involves
concept mapping. Students draw a visual diagram of a concept or information and
are invited to establish connections between different components of the topic in
question.
 The discussion forum constitutes the third diagnostic tool. You can ask students to
think about questions they have about an upcoming topic and ask them to respond
to their friends' discussion topics.

What are examples of diagnostic assessments?

The tools and methods used to develop diagnostic assessments will likely remain
the same regardless of your field of study. However, the materials on which you
base your student assessments will vary.

Below are some examples of diagnostic assessments in different fields.

Psychology: Students are invited to visually illustrate the order in which Jean
Piaget's stages of cognitive development occur.

English: Students are asked to complete a survey examining which Shakespeare

texts they have read and which themes apply to each play.

Chemistry: Students review and complete a checklist of all the necessary steps
they must take before performing a chemistry lab experiment.

Economics: Students receive an application form to complete upon arrival to class,

which is used to assess their understanding of the impact of supply and demand
trends on an area of their lives. children during the COVID -19 pandemic. Quick
examples of diagnostic assessments in different fields These diagnostic assessment
examples will make the meaning of diagnostic assessment clearer.

Here are ways that instructors in different fields use different types of diagnostic
assessment tools:
Introductory Physics: A set of conceptual questions used to assess understanding
of the basic principles of physics at the beginning of the course.

Psychology: The instructor conducts an investigation to understand students'

assumptions about concepts such as the nature of the mind and the nature of
behavior.
Course with group activities: the instructor conducts a self-assessment, in which
group members evaluate themselves based on certain parameters. Specific
examples from their previous group work were brought together to understand
each individual's thinking.

Creative or Fine Arts: Instructors collect portfolios to assess the artistic abilities
of fine arts students. Other types of diagnostic assessments that may be used to
evaluate students include:

Newspaper Quizzes/Tests Conference/Interview Posters Task performed Mental

map Narrow the gap Student survey Prediction guide graffiti wall from splashing
Works in parallel Official review KWL .

Advantages and disadvantages of diagnostic assessment in education

Different types of diagnostic assessment in education have different advantages in

helping to achieve the diagnostic assessment goal of improving quality. That is:
They provide information for educators to create personalized instruction. They are
often informal and easy to use. They do not require high-level training and do not
have standardized procedures to follow. Teachers can refine or modify their
methods at any time.

For example, teachers can start with simpler diagnostic assessment examples, like
MCQs, then move on to journals or tests. Such assessments will give quick results
once you get used to them. Instructors can easily share their learning with their
colleagues.

Disadvantages of diagnostic evaluation can be: They do not take into account
everything that needs to be done after the lesson has been taught. The importance
of diagnostic evaluation also decreases in larger groups.

Teachers may develop incorrect assumptions about students' knowledge of a topic

and ignore that particular topic throughout the lesson. Students new to this set of
materials may become nervous. Often, for this assessment to be performed
accurately and performed reliably, special training may be required. Plus, this
whole process takes a lot of time. Improve the quality of your teaching The goal of
diagnostic assessment, as stated above, is to help teachers improve their teaching
methods and help students learn better.
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Q.5
Recognize some important problems present in our existing assessment
system and propose some feasible solutions of these problems.

CLASS ASSESSMENT

The first thing many people think of when they think of "classroom assessment" is
the midterm or final exam, which teachers use for summative grading purposes.
But these practices represent only a small fraction of the types of assessment that
occur continuously in an effective classroom. This section focuses on assessments
used by teachers to support teaching and learning, also known as formative
assessment. Such assessment has significant potential to improve student learning
when informed by research and theory about how students develop skills in a
subject. As teaching progresses, teachers need information to evaluate whether
their teaching strategies are effective. They also need information about the current
perceptions of individual students and groups of students so they can determine the
most appropriate next steps for instruction. Additionally, students need feedback to
evaluate their success in learning and to know How can I improve? Teachers
observe students' understanding and performance in a variety of ways: from in-
class dialogue, quizzes, homework and assignments, formal tests, less formal
quizzes, project, portfolio, etc. Black and Wiliam (1998) provide an in-depth
review of more than 250 books and articles presenting research data on the impact
of classroom assessment. They concluded that continuous teacher assessment,
combined with appropriate feedback from students, can have a strong and positive
impact on achievement.

However, they also reported that the characteristics of high-quality formative

assessment were not well understood by teachers and students. Transforming
classroom assessment methods A project by King’s College London (Black and
Wiliam, 2000) illustrates some of the problems encountered when attempting to
incorporate cognitive principles and evidence-based reasoning into classroom
practice. The project involved working closely with 24 science and mathematics
teachers to develop methods for assessing their form in their daily classroom work.
During the implementation of the project, some aspects of the teaching and
learning process were completely changed. One of these aspects is the way
teachers ask questions in class.

Particular emphasis is placed on the concept of waiting time (a period of silence

that the teacher will allow after asking a question before speaking again if no one
answers), emphasizing the usual brevity of time. This. Teachers have modified
their practice to give students more time to think about any questions posed, often
asking them to discuss their opinions in pairs before asking for answers. . It is
strictly forbidden for students to raise their hands to answer voluntarily; Anyone
can be asked to respond. The teacher does not label the answer as right or wrong
but asks the student to explain the reason for that answer. The others were then
asked to indicate whether they agreed and why. Thus, the questions opened up a
discussion that allowed students to express and explore their hypotheses and
reasoning

. At the same time, wrong answers become useful input and students realize
that the teacher wants to know what they think, not judge whether they are
right or wrong. As a result, teachers ask fewer questions and spend more time
on each question. that formative assessment is weak in practice. High-quality
classroom assessment is a complex process, which summarizes many of the points
raised in the following discussion. In short, developing good formative assessment
requires fundamental changes in the way students are encouraged to express their
ideas and the way teachers give feedback to students so that they can develop
management skills. reason and direct their own learning.

Where such innovations are implemented, teachers are acutely aware of the need
to think more clearly about their own assumptions about how students learn.
Additionally, teachers recognize that lesson planning needs to include careful
thought about selecting information-rich questions. They discovered that they had
to consider very carefully what aspects of students' thinking a given question could
be used to explore. This discovery caused them to put more effort into developing
quality criteria for their questions. Therefore, teachers must confront the
importance of cognitive foundations in designing assessment situations that can
evoke important aspects of students' thinking and learning. In response to research
demonstrating that solely grading writing can be counterproductive to learning
(Butler, 1988), teachers instead began to focus on providing feedback that does not
include a grade. - feedback designed to guide the student's further learning.
Students also engage in self-assessment and peer-assessment activities, which
require them to understand the learning objectives and quality criteria that apply to
their work.

These types of activities require patient education and support from the teacher,
but promote students' ability to focus on learning goals and identify learning goals
where they lack confidence and need support. h. In this way, assessment situations
become learning opportunities rather than activities separate from learning. There
is a vast literature on how to design and use classroom assessment to improve
teaching and learning This resource presents powerful ideas and practical advice
to help K-16 teachers improve their classroom assessment practices.

Information about the learner's current status. Take action to close the gap.
These three elements are directly related to assessment, curriculum, and
instruction. Learning goals arise from the curriculum. The learner's current state is
derived from the assessment, so the gap between this state and the learning goal
can be assessed. Action is then taken through instructions to close the gap. An
important point is that assessment information itself simply reveals a student's
ability at any given time; This process is considered formative assessment only
when teachers use the information to make decisions about how to adapt
instruction to suit student needs.

Additionally, there are ongoing and dynamic relationships between formative

assessment, curriculum, and instructional activities. That is, there is significant
two-way interaction between the three factors, such that each factor informs the
other.

For example, developing assessment procedures for use in the classroom can
prompt teachers to think more specifically about learning goals, thereby leading to
changes in curriculum and instruction. These changes, in turn, can lead to
improved assessment procedures, etc. The mere existence of classroom assessment
according to the principles discussed here will not ensure effective learning. The
clarity and relevance of curriculum objectives, the validity of assessments against
those objectives, the interpretation of assessment evidence, and the relevance and
quality of instructional outcomes are all are essential determinants of outcomes.
Starting with a cognitive model and learning in the field can improve each of these
determinants.

The importance of cognitive models and learning For most teachers, the
ultimate goals of learning are established by the curriculum, which is often
imposed from the outside (for example, by state curriculum standards). However,
teachers and those responsible for designing, teaching, and evaluating curricula
must set intermediate goals that can be effective means to achieve the ultimate
goals. To do this, they must understand how people demonstrate knowledge and
develop skills in the field. Manor. National and state normative documents identify
learning goals, but often not at the level of detail useful for implementing those
goals in instruction and assessment (American Federation of Teachers, 1999 ; Finn,
Petrilli, & Vanourek, 1998). By dividing goal descriptions into sections appropriate
to different age and grade levels, current curriculum standards provide general
guidance on the nature of progress to be made in subject areas. learn differently.
While this type of epistemological and conceptual reflection Realistic analysis of
the field is an essential basis for guiding assessment, but deeper cognitive analysis
of how people learn the material is also needed. Formative assessment should be
based on cognitive theories about how people learn a particular subject to ensure
that teaching focuses on what is most important for the next stage of learning,
based on level of understanding.
know the learner's current situation. cognitive research has produced numerous
descriptions of how individuals develop problem-solving and reasoning skills in
various content areas, especially in the fields of mathematics and science. These
learning models provide fertile ground for designing formative assessments.
Therefore, teachers need training to develop an understanding of cognition and
learning in the areas they teach. Prior and professional development is needed to
explore teachers' existing understandings of how students learn (Strauss, 1998) and
help them form models of learning so that they can identify strategies students'
naïve or original creative strategies and rely on these strategies to progress.
Students aim for deeper understanding.

The goal is to increase teachers' diagnostic expertise so they can make informed
decisions about the next steps in their students' learning. This is one of the primary
goals of cognitive approaches to teaching and assessment that have been shown to
have a positive impact on student learning, including Guided Cognitive Instruction

The foundation of CGI is a rudimentary student mental model that borrows from
research done in cognitive science to describe the semantic structure of word
problems, as well as typical strategies that children use to solve them. For example,
teachers were informed that math problems that appeared to involve different
calculations, such as 3 + 7 = 10 and 10 – 7 = 3, were perceived by children as the
same because both involved related to the activities of combining ministries. The
model summarizes children's thinking about arithmetic word problems involving
addition or subtraction summarized by a three-dimensional matrix, in which rows
identify main classes of semantic relationships such as combine, separate or
compare sets d'; columns refer to unknown sets (e.g. 7 + 3 = ? vs. 7+? = 10); and
depth is the synthesis of typical strategies used by children to solve such problems.
Studies of cognitive development show that children's trajectories in this space are
highly coherent.

For example, forward modeling strategies are learned before counting strategies;
Similarly, the count from the first addition (e.g., 2 + 4 = ?, 2, 3(1), 4(2), 5(3), 6(4))
is collected before the count from the addition. largest addition (e.g. 4, 5(1), 6(2)).
Because the development of these strategies tends to be robust, teachers can
quickly place students' thinking in the problem space defined by the CGI.
Additionally, the model helps teachers identify possible prior knowledge and
predict appropriate next steps.

Given a solution to a student problem,

teachers can modify instruction in several ways:

(1) by posing a more difficult or easier developmental problem;

(2) change the size of the numbers in the set; or

(3) compare and contrast students' solution strategies, so that students can
appreciate the usefulness and sophistication of a strategy they may not have
created on their own.

For example, a student directly models a meeting of sets with tokens (e.g., 2 + 3 is
solved by combining 2 tokens with 3 tokens then counting all the tokens
newspaper) might benefit from observing how a class of classmates uses counting
strategies (such as 2, 3(1), etc.) to solve similar problems. In a program like CGI,
formative assessment is seamlessly integrated into the educational structure