Raya University

College of Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Heat Transfer

A Module for Exit Exam Preparation

December 2023

Maichew, Ethiopia

Course outcomes:

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 • Solve steady and Transient, one-dimensional conduction heat transfer problems analytically
• Use Numerical/finite difference approaches to numerically solve two-dimensional, conduction and
transient heat transfer problems
• Understand fins and analyze heat transfer from extended surfaces
• Understand the important of dimensionless parameters to convection heat transfer and basic
principles underlying convection heat transfer
• Understand thermal and viscous boundary layer heat transfer phenomena for laminar and turbulent
flows
• Analyzing heat transfer in various flow conditions (internal and external flows) by determining
convention coefficient for a flow in/on a particular geometry.

What is Heat Transfer?

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The science of thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process
from one equilibrium state to another, whereas the science of heat transfer deals with the rate of heat
transfer, which is the main focus of interest in the design and evaluation of heat transfer equipment.

The sum of all forms of energy of a system is called total energy, and it includes the internal, kinetic, and
potential energies. The internal energy represents the molecular energy of a system, and it consists of
sensible, latent, chemical, and nuclear forms.

The sensible and latent forms of internal energy can be transferred from one medium to another as a result
of a temperature difference and are referred to as heat or thermal energy. Thus, heat transfer is the exchange
of the sensible and latent forms of internal energy between two mediums as a result of a temperature
difference.

The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate and is denoted by 𝑄̇. The rate of
heat transfer per unit area is called heat flux, 𝑞̇ .

A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, and a system that involves mass transfer across its
boundaries is called an open system or control volume.

The first law of thermodynamics or the energy balance for any system undergoing any process can be
expressed as

When a stationary closed system involves heat transfer only and no work interactions across its boundary,
the energy balance relation reduces to:

where Q is the amount of net heat transfer to or from the system.

When heat is transferred at a constant rate of 𝑄̇, the amount of heat transfer during a time interval Δt, can
be determined from Q = 𝑄̇ Δt.

Under steady conditions and in the absence of any work interactions, the conservation of energy relation
for a control volume with one inlet and one exit with negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies
can be expressed as:

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where 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉𝐴𝑐, is the mass flow rate and 𝑄̇ is the rate of net heat transfer into or out of the control
volume.

Modes/Mechanisms of Heat Transfer?

Heat can be transferred in three different modes:

• Conduction,
• Convection, and
• Radiation.

Conduction is the transfer of heat from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles, and is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction as:

where k is the thermal conductivity of the material in W/m·K , A is the area normal to the direction of heat
transfer, and dT/dx is the temperature gradient.

The magnitude of the rate of heat conduction across a plane layer of thickness L is given by

where ΔT is the temperature difference across the layer.

Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The rate of convection heat
transfer is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2·K, 𝐴𝑠 is the surface area through which
convection heat transfer takes place, 𝑇𝑠 is the surface temperature, and 𝑇∞ is the temperature of
the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result
of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

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The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a thermodynamic temperature Ts is
given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

Where 𝜎 = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 4 , is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

When a surface of emissivity 𝜀 and surface area As at a temperature Ts is completely enclosed by a much
larger (or black) surface at a temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not intervene with
radiation, the net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is given by:

In this case, the emissivity (𝜀 ) and the surface area of the surrounding surface do not have any effect on the
net radiation heat transfer.

The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from:

where , is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface and a is the absorptivity of the
surface.

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity k [W/mK] is a measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat. The thermal
conductivity is defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.

Thermal conductivity changes with temperature and is determined through experiments. The thermal
conductivity of certain materials show a dramatic change at temperatures near absolute zero, when these
solids become superconductors.

An isotropic material is a material that has uniform properties in all directions. Insulators are materials used
primarily to provide resistance to heat flow. They have low thermal conductivity.

The Thermal Resistance Concept

The Fourier equation, for steady conduction through a constant area plane wall, can be written:

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This can be re‐arranged as:

Rwall is the thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction or simply the conduction resistance of the
wall.

The heat transfer across the fluid/solid interface is based on Newton’s law of cooling:

Rconv is the thermal resistance of the surface against heat convection or simply the convection resistance
of the surface.

Thermal radiation between a surface of area A at Ts and the surroundings at T∞ can be expressed as:

where 0 < ε <1 is the emissivity of the surface. Note that both the temperatures must be in Kelvin

Thermal Resistance Network

Consider steady, one‐dimensional heat flow through two plane walls in series which are exposed to
convection on both sides, see Fig. Under steady state condition:

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Note that A is constant area for a plane wall. Also note that the thermal resistances are in series and
equivalent resistance is determined by simply adding thermal resistances.

The rate of heat transfer between two surfaces is equal to the temperature difference divided by the total
thermal resistance between two surfaces.

It can be written:

∆𝑇 = 𝑄̇𝑅

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The thermal resistance concept is widely used in practice; however, its use is limited to systems through
which the rate of heat transfer remains constant. It other words, to systems involving steady heat transfer
with no heat generation.

Thermal Resistances in Parallel

The thermal resistance concept can be used to solve steady state heat transfer problem in parallel layers or
combined series‐parallel arrangements. It should be noted that these problems are often two‐ or three
dimensional, but approximate solutions can be obtained by assuming one dimensional heat transfer (using
thermal resistance network).

𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇1 + 𝑄̇ 2

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Example: Thermal Resistance Network

Consider the combined series‐parallel arrangement shown in figure below. Assuming one –dimensional
heat transfer, determine the rate of heat transfer.

Solution:

The rate of heat transfer through this composite system can be expressed as:

Two approximations commonly used in solving complex multi‐dimensional heat transfer problems by
transfer problems by treating them as one dimensional, using the thermal resistance network:

1‐ Assume any plane wall normal to the x‐axis to be isothermal, i.e. temperature to vary in one direction
only T = T(x)

2‐ Assume any plane parallel to the x‐axis to be adiabatic, i.e. heat transfer occurs in the x‐ direction only.

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These two assumptions result in different networks (different results). The actual result lies between these
two results

Heat Conduction in Cylinders and Spheres

Steady state heat transfer through pipes is in the normal direction to the wall surface (no significant heat
transfer occurs in other directions). Therefore, the heat transfer can be modeled as steady‐state and one‐
dimensional, and the temperature of the pipe will depend only on the radial direction, T = T (r).

Since, there is no heat generation in the layer and thermal conductivity is constant, the Fourier law becomes:

After integration:

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where Rcyl is the conduction resistance of the cylinder layer.

Following the analysis above, the conduction resistance for the spherical layer can be found:

The convection resistance remains the same in both cylindrical and spherical coordinates, Rconv = 1/hA.
However, note that the surface area A = 2πrL (cylindrical) and A = 4πr2 (spherical) are functions of radius.

Example: Multilayer cylindrical thermal resistance network

Steam at T∞,1 = 320 °C flows in a cast iron pipe [k = 80 W/ m.°C] whose inner and outer diameter are D1
= 5 cm and D2 = 5.5 cm, respectively. The pipe is covered with a 3‐cm‐ thick glass wool insulation [k =
0.05 W/ m.°C]. Heat is lost to the surroundings at T∞,2 = 5°C by natural convection and radiation, with a
combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18 W/m2. °C. Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe
to be h1 = 60 W/m2K, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length of the pipe. Also
determine the temperature drop across the pipe shell and the insulation.

Assumptions:

Steady‐state and one‐dimensional heat transfer.

Solution:

Taking L = 1 m, the areas of the surfaces exposed to convection are:

A1 = 2πr1L = 0.157 m2

A2 = 2πr2L = 0.361 m2

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The steady‐state rate of heat loss from the steam becomes

The total heat loss for a given length can be determined by multiplying the above quantity by the pipe
length.

The temperature drop across the pipe and the insulation are:

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Note that the temperature difference (thermal resistance) across the pipe is too small relative to other
resistances and can be ignored.

Critical Radius of Insulation

To insulate a plane wall, the thicker the insulator, the lower the heat transfer rate (since the area is constant).
However, for cylindrical pipes or spherical shells, adding insulation results in increasing the surface area
which in turns results in increasing the convection heat transfer. As a result of these two competing trends
the heat transfer may increase or decrease.

The variation of 𝑄̇ with the outer radius of the insulation reaches a maximum that can be determined from
d𝑄̇ / dr2 = 0. The value of the critical radius for the cylindrical pipes and spherical shells are:

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Note that for most applications, the critical radius is so small. Thus, we can insulate hot water or steam
pipes without worrying about the possibility of increasing the heat transfer by insulating the pipe.

Heat Generation in Solids

Conversion of some form of energy into heat energy in a medium is called heat generation. Heat generation
leads to a temperature rise throughout the medium.

Some examples of heat generation are resistance heating in wires, exothermic chemical reactions in solids,
and nuclear reaction. Heat generation is usually expressed per unit volume (W/m3).

In most applications, we are interested in maximum temperature Tmax and surface temperature Ts of solids
which are involved with heat generation. The maximum temperature Tmax in a solid that involves uniform
heat generation will occur at a location furthest away from the outer surface when the outer surface is
maintained at a constant temperature, Ts.

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Consider a solid medium of surface area A, volume V, and constant thermal conductivity k, where heat is
generated at a constant rate of 𝑔̇ per unit volume. Heat is transferred from the solid to the surroundings
medium at T∞.

Under steady conditions, the energy balance for the solid can be expressed as:

Rate of heat transfer from the solid = Rate of energy generation within the solid

𝑄̇ = 𝑔̇ 𝑉

From the Newton’s law of cooling, 𝑄̇= hA (Ts ‐ T∞). Combining these equations, a relationship for the
surface temperature can be found:

Using the above relationship, the surface temperature can be calculated for a plane wall of thickness 2L, a
long cylinder of radius r0, and a sphere of radius r0, as follows:

Note that the rise in temperature is due to heat generation. Using the Fourier’s law, we can derive a
relationship for the center (maximum) temperature of long cylinder of radius r0.

where T0 is the centerline temperature of the cylinder (Tmax). Using the approach, the maximum
temperature can be found for plane walls and spheres

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Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces

From the Newton’s law of cooling, 𝑄̇ conv = h A (Ts ‐ T∞), the rate of convective heat transfer from a
surface at a temperature Ts can be increased by two methods:

1) Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient, h

2) Increasing the surface area A.

Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient may not be practical and/or adequate. An increase in
surface area by attaching extended surfaces called fins to the surface is more convenient. Finned surfaces
are commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer. In the analysis of the fins, we consider steady
operation with no heat generation in the fin. We also assume that the convection heat transfer coefficient h
to be constant and uniform over the entire surface of the fin.

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In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance (k→∞), the temperature of the fin will be uniform at the base
value of Tb. The heat transfer from the fin will be maximized in this case:

Fin efficiency can be defined as:

where Afin is total surface area of the fin. This enables us to determine the heat transfer from a fin when its
efficiency is known:

Fin efficiency for various profiles can be read from Fig. 10‐42, 10‐43 in Cengel’ s book.

The following must be noted for a proper fin selection:

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 • The longer the fin, the larger the heat transfer area and thus the higher the rate of heat transfer from
the fin
• The larger the fin, the bigger the mass, the higher the price, and larger the fluid friction, also
• The fin efficiency decreases with increasing fin length because of the decrease in fin temperature
with length.

Fin Effectiveness

The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in heat transfer relative to the no‐fin
case, and expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness:

For a sufficiently long fin of uniform cross‐section Ac, the temperature at the tip of the fin will approach
the environment temperature, T∞. By writing energy balance and solving the differential equation, one
finds:

where Ac is the cross‐sectional area, x is the distance from the base, and p is perimeter.

The effectiveness becomes:

To increase fin effectiveness, one can conclude:

• The thermal conductivity of the fin material must be as high as possible

• The ratio of perimeter to the cross‐sectional area p/Ac should be as high as possible

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 • The use of fin is most effective in applications that involve low convection heat transfer coefficient,
i.e. natural convection.

Transient Heat Conduction

• In general, temperature of a body varies with time as well as position.

Lumped System Analysis

Interior temperatures of some bodies remain essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer process.
The temperature of such bodies are only a function of time, T = T(t). The heat transfer analysis based on
this idealization is called lumped system analysis.

Consider a body of arbitrary shape of mass m, volume V, surface area A, density ρ and specific heat Cp
initially at a uniform temperature Ti.

At time t = 0, the body is placed into a medium at temperature T∞ (T∞ >Ti) with a heat transfer coefficient
h. An energy balance of the solid for a time interval dt can be expressed as:

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Using above equation, we can determine the temperature T(t) of a body at time t, or alternatively, the time
t required for the temperature to reach a specified value T(t).

Note that the temperature of a body approaches the ambient temperature T∞ exponentially.

A large value of b indicates that the body will approach the environment temperature in a short time. b is
proportional to the surface area, but inversely proportional to the mass and the specific heat of the body.

Once the temperature T(t) at time t is available from the above equation,

• The rate of convection heat transfer between the body and its environment at that time can be
determined from Newton’s law of cooling as:

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 • The total amount of heat transfer between the body and the surrounding medium over the time
interval t = 0 to t is simply the change in the energy content of the body:

• The amount of heat transfer reaches its upper limit when the body reaches the surrounding
temperature T∞. Therefore, the maximum heat transfer between the body and its surroundings is:

Criteria for Lumped System Analysis

The lumped system analysis certainly provides great convenience in heat transfer analysis, and naturally
we would like to know when it is appropriate to use it. The first step in establishing a criterion for the
applicability of the lumped system analysis is to define a characteristic length as:

A non‐dimensional parameter, the Biot number, is defined:

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The Biot number is the ratio of the internal resistance (conduction) to the external resistance to heat
convection. Lumped system analysis assumes a uniform temperature distribution throughout the body,
which implies that the conduction heat resistance is zero. Thus, the lumped system analysis is exact when
Bi = 0.

It is generally accepted that the lumped system analysis is applicable if

Note that the Biot number is the ratio of the convection at the surface to conduction within the body, and
this number should be as small as possible for lumped system analysis to be applicable.

Therefore, small bodies with high thermal conductivity are good candidates for lumped system analysis,
especially when they are in a medium that is a poor conductor of heat (such as air or another gas) and
motionless.

Example

A thermocouple junction, which may be approximated by a sphere, is to be used for temperature

measurement in a gas stream. The convection heat transfer coefficient between the junction surface and the
gas is known to be h = 400 W/m2.K, and the junction thermophysical properties are k = 20 W/m.K, Cp =
400 J/kg.K, and ρ = 8500 kg/m3.

Determine the junction diameter needed for the thermocouple to have a time constant of 1 s. If the junction
is at 25°C and is placed in a gas stream that is at 200°C, how long will it take for the junction to reach
199°C?

Assumptions:

1. Temperature of the junction is uniform at any instant.

2. Radiation is negligible.

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 3. Losses through the leads, by conduction, are negligible.

4. Constant properties.

Forced Convection Heat Transfer

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Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion.
Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on how the fluid motion is
initiated. In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect,
i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and fall the cooler fluid. Whereas in forced convection, the fluid is forced to
flow over a surface or in a tube by external means such as a pump or fan.

Mechanism of Forced Convection

Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves fluid motion as well as heat conduction. The fluid
motion enhances heat transfer (the higher the velocity the higher the heat transfer rate).

The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling:

The convective heat transfer coefficient h strongly depends on the fluid properties and roughness of the
solid surface, and the type of the fluid flow (laminar or turbulent).

It is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall, this assumption is called no‐ slip condition.
As a result, the heat transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure
conduction, since the fluid is motionless. Thus

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The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow direction. The mean or average
convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface is determined by (properly) averaging the local heat
transfer coefficient over the entire surface.

Velocity Boundary Layer

Consider the flow of a fluid over a flat plate, the velocity and the temperature of the fluid approaching the
plate is uniform at U∞ and T∞. The fluid can be considered as adjacent layers on top of each others.

Assuming no‐slip condition at the wall, the velocity of the fluid layer at the wall is zero. The motionless
layer slows down the particles of the neighboring fluid layers as a result of friction between the two adjacent
layers. The presence of the plate is felt up to some distance from the plate beyond which the fluid velocity
U∞ remains unchanged. This region is called velocity boundary layer.

Boundary layer region is the region where the viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant and
the inviscid region is the region in which the frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains
essentially constant.

The friction between two adjacent layers between two layers acts similar to a drag force (friction force).
The drag force per unit area is called the shear stress:

where μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid kg/m.s or N.s/m2 .

Viscosity is a measure of fluid resistance to flow, and is a strong function of temperature.

The surface shear stress can also be determined from:

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where Cf is the friction coefficient or the drag coefficient which is determined experimentally in most cases.

The drag force is calculated from:

The flow in boundary layer starts as smooth and streamlined which is called laminar flow. At some distance
from the leading edge, the flow turns chaotic, which is called turbulent and it is characterized by velocity
fluctuations and highly disordered motion.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which is called transition region.

The velocity profile in the laminar region is approximately parabolic, and becomes flatter in turbulent flow.
The turbulent region can be considered of three regions: laminar sublayer (where viscous effects are
dominant), buffer layer (where both laminar and turbulent effects exist), and turbulent layer.

The intense mixing of the fluid in turbulent flow enhances heat and momentum transfer between fluid
particles, which in turn increases the friction force and the convection heat transfer coefficient.

Non‐dimensional Groups

In convection, it is a common practice to non‐dimensionalize the governing equations and combine the
variables which group together into dimensionless numbers (groups).

Nusselt number: non‐dimensional heat transfer coefficient

The Nusselt number can also be given as the ratio of convection heat transfer rate to conduction heat

transfer rate.

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Reynolds number: ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in the fluid

At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and the velocity of the fluid,
are large relative to the viscous forces; thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid
fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent regime).

The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical Reynolds number. For flat
plate the critical Re is experimentally determined to be approximately Re critical = 5 x105

Prandtl number: is a measure of relative thickness of the velocity and thermal boundary layer

Thermal Boundary Layer

Similar to velocity boundary layer, a thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at specific temperature
flows over a surface which is at different temperature.

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The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is described by the Prandtl number.

For low Prandtl number fluids, i.e. liquid metals, heat diffuses much faster than momentum flow (remember
Pr = ν/α<<1) and the velocity boundary layer is fully contained within the thermal boundary layer. On the
other hand, for high Prandtl number fluids, i.e. oils, heat diffuses much slower than the momentum and the
thermal boundary layer is contained within the velocity boundary layer.

Flow Over Flat Plate

The friction and heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate can be determined by solving the conservation of
mass, momentum, and energy equations (either approximately or numerically). They can also be measured
experimentally. It is found that the Nusselt number can be expressed as:

where C, m, and n are constants and L is the length of the flat plate. The properties of the fluid are usually
evaluated at the film temperature defined as:

Laminar Flow

The local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at the location x for laminar flow over a flat plate are:

where x is the distant from the leading edge of the plate and Rex = ρV∞x / μ.

The averaged friction coefficient and the Nusselt number over the entire isothermal plate for laminar regime
are:

Taking the critical Reynolds number to be 5 x105, the length of the plate xcr over which the flow is laminar
can be determined from:

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Turbulent Flow

The local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at location x for turbulent flow over a flat isothermal
plate are:

Combined Laminar and Turbulent Flow

If the plate is sufficiently long for the flow to become turbulent (and not long enough to disregard the
laminar flow region), we should use the average values for friction coefficient and the Nusselt number.

where the critical Reynolds number is assumed to be 5x105. After performing the integrals and
simplifications, one obtains:

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The above relationships have been obtained for the case of isothermal surfaces, but could also be used
approximately for the case of non‐isothermal surfaces. In such cases assume the surface temperature be
constant at some average value.

For isoflux (uniform heat flux) plates, the local Nusselt number for laminar and turbulent flow can be found
from:

Note the isoflux relationships give values that are 36% higher for laminar and 4% for turbulent flows
relative to isothermal plate case.

Example

Engine oil at 60°C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20°C with a velocity of 2 m/s.
Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit width of the entire plate.

We assume the critical Reynolds number is 5x105. The properties of the oil at the film temperature are:

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The Re number for the plate is:

which is less than the critical Re. Thus we have laminar flow. The friction coefficient and the drag force
can be found from:

Flow across Cylinders and Spheres

The characteristic length for a circular tube or sphere is the external diameter, D, and the Reynolds number
is defined:

The critical Re for the flow across spheres or tubes is 2x105. The approaching fluid to the cylinder (a
sphere) will branch out and encircle the body, forming a boundary layer.

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At low Re (Re < 4) numbers the fluid completely wraps around the body. At higher Re

numbers, the fluid is too fast to remain attached to the surface as it approaches the top of the cylinder. Thus,
the boundary layer detaches from the surface, forming a wake behind the body. This point is called the
separation point. To reduce the drag coefficient, streamlined bodies are more suitable, e.g. airplanes are
built to resemble birds and submarine to resemble fish, Fig. 4. In flow past cylinder or spheres, flow
separation occurs around 80° for laminar flow and 140° for turbulent flow.

where frontal area of a cylinder is AN = L×D, and for a sphere is AN = πD2/ 4.

The drag force acting on a body is caused by two effects: the friction drag (due to the shear stress at the
surface) and the pressure drag which is due to pressure differential between the front and rear side of the
body. As a result of transition to turbulent flow, which moves the separation point further to the rear of the
body, a large reduction in the drag coefficient occurs. As a result, the surface of golf balls is intentionally
roughened to induce turbulent at a lower Re number, see Fig.

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The average heat transfer coefficient for cross‐flow over a cylinder can be found from the correlation
presented by Churchill and Bernstein:

where fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞) / 2.

For flow over a sphere, Whitaker recommended the following:

which is valid for 3.5 < Re < 80,000 and 0.7 < Pr < 380. The fluid properties are evaluated at the free‐
stream temperature T∞, except for μs which is evaluated at surface temperature.

The average Nusselt number for flow across circular and non‐circular cylinders can be found from Table
10‐3 Cengel book.

Example

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The decorative plastic film on a copper sphere of 10‐mm diameter is cured in an oven at 75°C. Upon
removal from the oven, the sphere is subjected to an air stream at 1 atm and 23°C having a velocity of 10
m/s, estimate how long it will take to cool the sphere to 35°C.

Assumptions:

1. Negligible thermal resistance and capacitance for the plastic layer.

2. Spatially isothermal sphere.

3. Negligible Radiation.

The time required to complete the cooling process may be obtained from the results for a lumped
capacitance.

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 Multiple Choice Questions (Answers are provided on the Last Page)

1. Which of the following statements is true for one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction
problems?
a. The temperature distribution is a function of time and position
b. The temperature distribution is a function of time only
c. The temperature distribution is a function of position only
d. The temperature distribution is a constant
2. Which of the following is not a boundary condition for one-dimensional steady-state heat
conduction problems?
a. Temperature distribution inside the system
b. Temperature at the left boundary of the system
c. Convection at the right boundary of the system
d. Heat flux at the left boundary of the system
3. Which of the following materials would be the best choice as an insulating layer in a composite
wall for minimizing heat transfer through the wall?
a. Aluminum (thermal conductivity = 200 W/(m·K))

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 b. Copper (thermal conductivity = 400 W/(m·K))
c. Glass wool (thermal conductivity = 0.04 W/(m·K))
d. Steel (thermal conductivity = 50 W/(m·K))
4. Heat sinks are commonly used in electronic devices to dissipate excess heat. Which of the
following materials would be a good choice for a heat sink?
a. Rubber
b. Aluminum
c. Glass
d. Wood
5. A brick wall 20 cm thick and having a thermal conductivity of 0.9 W/(m·K) separates two rooms at
temperatures of 25°C and 5°C. The surface area of the wall is 12 m². What is the rate of heat
transfer through the wall?
a. 54 W
b. 540 W
c. 108 W
d. d) 1080 W
6. A composite wall consists of two layers with different thermal conductivities k1 and k2, and
thicknesses L1 and L2, respectively. The wall is heated on one side and cooled on the other side,
and the steady-state temperature distribution is one-dimensional. Which of the following
expressions gives the correct value of the heat flux q that passes through the composite wall?
a) q = (T2 - T1) / [(L1/k1) + (L2/k2)]

b) q = (T2 - T1) / [(L1/k2) + (L2/k1)]

c) q = (T2 - T1) / [(L1 + L2)/(k1 + k2)]

d) q = (T2 - T1) / [(L1/k1) + (L2/k1)]

7. A 2.5 m-high, 4-m-wide, and 20-cm-thick wall of a house has a thermal resistance of
0.0125°C/W. The thermal conductivity of the wall is:

(a) 0.72 W/m·K (b) 1.1 W/m·K (c) 1.6 W/m·K (d) 16 W/m·K (e) 32 W/m·K

8. Which of the following statements regarding thermal contact resistance is false?

a. Thermal contact resistance occurs due to imperfect contact between two surfaces.

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 b. Higher force applied during mounting can reduce thermal contact resistance.
c. The use of thermal interface materials can increase thermal contact resistance.
d. Surface roughness can increase thermal contact resistance.
9. Which of the following is a common method for improving the heat transfer rate from a finned
surface?
a. Increasing fin thickness.
b. Using a lower thermal conductivity fin material.
c. Increasing the fin spacing.
d. Increasing the air velocity over the finned surface.
10. Which of the following parameters affect the heat transfer rate from a fin to the surroundings?
a. Fin material, fin geometry, and surrounding fluid properties
b. Fin material and fin geometry only
c. Fin material and surrounding fluid properties only
d. Fin geometry and surrounding fluid properties only
11. Which of the following materials is NOT commonly used for fins?
a. Aluminum
b. Copper
c. Steel
d. Rubber
12. What is the critical thickness of a fin?
a. The thickness of the fin at which the heat transfer coefficient becomes zero
b. The thickness of the fin at which the heat transfer rate is maximum
c. The thickness of the fin at which the temperature distribution along the fin becomes
non- linear
d. The thickness of the fin beyond which increasing the thickness does not result in
significant heat transfer enhancement
13. Which of the following is an assumption in the one dimensional heat conduction
equation for a finned surface?
a. There is no heat generation within the fins.
b. The thermal conductivity of the fins is uniform throughout the entire fin.

c. The heat transfer along the fin is solely conductive and not convective.

37
 d. All of the above.
14. Which of the following is a dimensionless parameter used to describe convection heat transfer?
a. Nusselt number.
b. Reynolds number.
c. Froude number.
d. Mach number.
15. Which of the following is a fundamental principle underlying natural convection heat transfer?
a. Heat transfer occurs due to molecular collisions within the fluid.
b. Heat transfer occurs through the bulk motion of the fluid.
c. Heat transfer occurs due to thermal radiation within the fluid.
d. Heat transfer occurs due to conduction within the solid boundary of the fluid.
16. Which of the following is a dimensionless parameter used to describe laminar and turbulent
fluid flow?
a. Prandtl number.
b. Reynolds number.
c. Peclet number.
d. Grashof number.
17. Which of the following is a dimensionless parameter used to describe natural convection heat
tansfer?
a. Rayleigh number.
b. Nusselt number.
c. Biot number.
d. Reynolds number.
18. What is the role of the Grashof number in natural convection heat transfer?
a. It determines the intensity of the thermal boundary layer
b. It determines the velocity of the fluid
c. It determines the fluid viscosity
d. It determines the relationship between buoyancy forces and viscous forces
19. Which of the following types of fluid flow is characterized by the presence of smooth, regular
fluid layers moving in parallel with no mixing between them?
a. Laminar flow.

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 b. Turbulent flow.
c. Chaotic flow.
d. Transient flow.
20. Which of the following factors affects the convective heat transfer coefficient of a fluid the
most?
a. Fluid properties.
b. Surface properties.
c. Flow conditions.
d. All of the above equally affect the convective heat transfer coefficient.
21. During heat treatment, cylindrical pieces of 25 mm diameter, 30 mm height and at 30 degree
Celsius are placed in a furnace at 750 degree Celsius with convective coefficient 80 W/m2 degree
Celsius. Calculate the time required to heat the pieces to 600 degree Celsius. Assume the following
property values (Density = 7850 kg /m3, Specific heat = 480 J/kg K, Conductivity = 40 W/m degree
Celsius)
a. 226 sec
b. 326 sec
c. 426 sec
d. 526 sec
22. The Biot number can be thought of as the ratio of:
a. The conduction thermal resistance to the convective thermal resistance.
b. The convective thermal resistance to the conduction thermal resistance.
c. The thermal energy storage capacity to the conduction thermal resistance.
d. The thermal energy storage capacity to the convection thermal resistance
23. Which of the following is a method to calculate heat transfer between a solid and a fluid in
which the temperature of the fluid changes with distance?
a. Newton's Law of Cooling
b. The Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) method
c. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
d. Convective heat transfer coefficient formula
24. Lumped parameter analysis for transient heat conduction is essentially valid for a Biot number:
a. Bi < 0.1
b. 1 < Bi < 10

39
 c. 0.1 < Bi < 0.5
d. It tends to infinity

25. Heat is lost at a rate of 275 W per m2 area of a 15cm thick wall with a thermal conductivity of
k = 1.1 W/m·K. The temperature drop across the wall is

(a) 37.5°C (b) 27.5°C (c) 16.0°C (d) 8.0°C (e) 4.0°C

26. Hot water (Cp = 4.179 kJ/kg·K) flows through a 200-m-long PVC (k = 0.092 W/m·K) pipe whose
inner diameter is 2 cm and outer diameter is 2.5 cm at a rate of 1 kg/s, entering at 40°C. If the
entire interior surface of this pipe is maintained at 35°C and the entire exterior surface at 20°C,
the outlet temperature of water is:

(a) 39°C (b) 38°C (c) 37°C (d) 36°C (e) 35°C

27. Carbon steel balls (ρ = 7830 kg/m3, k = 64 W/m·K, Cp = 434 J/kg·K) initially at 150°C are quenched
in an oil bath at 20°C for a period of 3 minutes. If the balls have a diameter of 5 cm and the
convection heat transfer coefficient is 450 W/m2·K. The center temperature of the balls after
quenching will be:

(a) 27.4°C (b) 143°C (c) 12.7°C (d) 48.2°C (e) 76.9°C

28. Which of the following is a limitation of analytical solutions in solving heat conduction
problems?
a. Analytical solutions cannot handle complex geometries and boundary conditions.
b. Analytical solutions are typically slower than numerical solutions.
c. Analytical solutions are less accurate than numerical solutions.
d. Analytical solutions require discretization and approximation.
29. Which of the following is a limitation of numerical solutions in solving heat conduction
problems?
a. Numerical solutions cannot handle complex geometries and boundary conditions.
b. Numerical solutions are typically slower than analytical solutions.
c. Numerical solutions are less accurate than analytical solutions.

40
 d. Numerical solutions rely on numerical discretization which can introduce errors.
30. Air at T0 acts on top surface of the rectangular solids as shown with a convection heat transfer
coefficient of h. The correct steady-state finite difference heat conduction equation for node 3 of
this solid is:

31. One is not true about using numerical methods in modeling heat transfer problems
a. Has realistic model and approximate solutions
b. Has simplified model and exact solution
c. It’s capable of modelling complicated geometries
d. It is more flexible to study multiple parameters
32. What is the primary disadvantage of the explicit method for solving transient heat conduction
problems?
a. It is computationally expensive
b. It is computationally unstable
c. It requires fine grid spacing
d. It cannot handle complex geometries
33. What is the difference between the explicit and implicit methods for solving transient heat cond
uction problems?
a. The explicit method requires less computational effort than the implicit method
b. The implicit method requires less computational effort than the explicit method
41
 c. The explicit method is unconditionally stable, while the stability of the implicit method
depends on the properties of the material
d. The implicit method is unconditionally stable, while the stability of the explicit method
depends on the properties of the material
34. What is the steady state solution for a two dimensional conduction problem with a constant
heat source?
a. A linear variation of temperature with distance from the edge
b. A parabolic variation of temperature with distance from the edge
c. Exponential variation of temperature with distance from the edge
d. A uniform temperature throughout the region
35. What causes the formation of the boundary layer in internal flows?
a. Frictional drag between the fluid and the surface of the object
b. The no-slip condition at the walls of the pipe or tube
c. The pressure gradient across the flow domain
d. The presence of turbulent eddies in the fluid
36. Which of the following best describes the boundary layer in external flows?
a. The region of flow where the fluid is stagnant due to the no-slip condition
b. The region of fluid near the surface of an object where the viscous effects are significant
c. The region of flow where the fluid velocity is at its maximum
d. The region of fluid where heat transfer is negligible due to the insulation effect of the
fluid.
37. Which of the following is a way to control the thickness of the boundary layer in external flows?
a. Increasing the temperature of the object surface
b. Increasing the speed of the fluid flow
c. Decreasing the viscosity of the fluid
d. Using a rougher surface texture for the object surface
38. What is the difference between the thermal and viscous boundary layer thicknesses?
a. The thermal boundary layer is thicker than the viscous boundary layer
b. The viscous boundary layer is thicker than the thermal boundary layer
c. They are equal in thickness
d. There is no difference between them
39. How does the thermal boundary layer vary with changes in fluid velocity in heat transfer

42
 convection?
a. The thermal boundary layer becomes thicker as fluid velocity increases.
b. The thermal boundary layer becomes thinner as fluid velocity increases.
c. The thermal boundary layer remains constant regardless of fluid velocity.
d. The thermal boundary layer becomes less turbulent as fluid velocity increases.
40. Why is the heat transfer coefficient dependent on the velocity of the fluid in forced convection?
a. Higher velocities increase the temperature difference across the boundary layer.
b. Higher velocities decrease the temperature difference across the boundary layer.
c. Higher velocities increase the rate of heat transfer by increasing the rate of mixing.
d. Higher velocities decrease the rate of heat transfer by increasing the thermal resistance
of the boundary layer.
41. Which of the following is an example of natural convection?
a. Heat transfer between a hot cup of coffee and the surrounding atmosphere
b. Heat transfer through a metal rod
c. Heat transfer between a flat plate and flowing water
d. Heat transfer through a vacuum
42. What is meant by the term "thermal boundary layer"?
a. The region near the surface where temperature changes rapidly
b. The region where flow is turbulent
c. The region where temperature is constant
d. The region where heat flux is maximum
43. Air at 25 degree Celsius approaches a 0.9 m long and 0.6 m wide flat plate with a velocity 4.5 m/s.
Let the plate is heated to a surface temperature of 135 degree Celsius. Find local heat transfer
coefficient from the leading edge at a distance of 0.5 m
a) 5.83 W/m2 K

b) 6. 83 W/m2 K

c) 7. 83 W/m2 K

d) 8. 83 W/m2 K
44. The fouling on heat exchanger surfaces:
a. Enhances the heat transfer rate
b. Decreases the heat transfer rate

43
 c. Has no effect on the heat transfer rate
d. Can either enhance or decrease the heat transfer rate depending on the type of fouling
45. In a counter flow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluids flow:
a. in the same direction
b. in opposite directions
c. perpendicular to each other
d. in a randomized pattern
46. The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as:
a. The ratio of the actual heat transfer rate to the maximum possible heat transfer rate
b. The ratio of the hot fluid specific heat to the cold fluid specific heat
c. The ratio of the cold fluid temperature difference to the hot fluid temperature
difference
d. The ratio of the actual heat transfer rate to the logarithmic mean temperature
difference
47. In a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, baffles are used to:
a. enhance the heat transfer coefficient by creating turbulence
b. decrease the number of tubes required for a given heat transfer
c. increase the tube diameter
d. decrease the pressure drop
48. Which of the following best describes a regenerator?
a. A type of heat exchanger used for the recovery of waste heat
b. A machine for the cycling of a working fluid
c. A mathematical model of heat transfer in a fin
d. A device for the filtration of fluids
49. What is the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)?
a. A mathematical quantity to calculate heat transfer rate in plate heat exchangers
b. A mathematical formula to calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient in regenerators
c. A mathematical formula to calculate the average temperature difference between fluids
in heat exchangers
d. A parameter that shows how effectively the heat is transferred between fluids in heat
exchangers
50. What is the advantage of using compact heat exchangers in industrial applications?

44
a. They have small fluid volumes and require less space
b. They have large fluid volumes and provide high heat transfer rates
c. They are easy to maintain and repair
d. They can handle a wide range of fluids and temperatures

Answer Key

1. C 11. D 21. B 31. B 41. A

2. A 12. D 22. A 32. B 42. A
3. C 13. D 23. B 33. D 43. A
4. B 14. A 24. A 34. B 44. B
5. D 15. B 25. A 35. B 45. B
6. A 16. B 26. B 36. B 46. A
7. C 17. A 27. A 37. B 47. A
8. C 18. D 28. A 38. B 48. A
9. D 19. A 29. D 39. B 49. C
10. A 20. C 30. B 40. C 50. A

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