CONCEPTS OF SAMPLING AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Have you come across the words sampling and population? If yes, please try to describe what is
sampling and population? Why do we need to take sample instead of studying the population as a
whole?
Basic Concepts of Sampling
Before we start to discuss details of the various sampling methods, it is important to understand
the following terminologies.
Population: is defined as the totality of things under consideration.
 That is, it is a collection of all values of the variable that is being studied.
 Population is therefore defined by the investigator based on the objectives of his/her
study.
 A population may consist of individuals, objects, scores, measurements, characteristics,
etc.
 A population may be finite or infinite.
Census: is the collection of data from each element of the population.
 Or it is a complete enumeration of all items in the population.
Sample: is a portion of a total population under study.
 It is a set of elements selected in some way from a population.
 A sample is used to inform certain characteristics of the population.
 For statistical inferences to be made about the population from the sample, it is essential
that the samples are representative of the population.
 The process of selecting the sample from the population is called sampling.
Statistic: can be viewed as a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a
sample.
 For example, sample mean and variance.
Parameter: is a numerical measurement that describes some characteristic of the population.
 For example, population mean and variance
Why do you need to take sample instead of studying the population as a whole? Some of the
major reasons for sampling include:
1. Cost reduction. Sampling saves cost of the study.
 It will be very expensive to cover the entire population in the study.
 Only government can do some large-scale census.
 For example, population census has been conducted every 10 years in Ethiopia.
2. Timeliness. It saves time. Census involves a great deal of time to contact the whole
population.
3. The physical impossibility of checking all the items when a population contains infinitely
many members.
 Thus, it is impossible to generate detailed information.

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  Sometimes it possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only the sample.
4. The destructive nature of certain tests.
 In this case, sampling is the only choice.
 This works particularly in medical sciences.
 For example, if a physician needs to take a blood test to check whether a patient is
exposed to malaria infection, he will simply take a sample of blood rather than taking
the whole blood of the patient.
5. The adequacy of sample.
 Even the slightest elements of bias will get larger and larger, as the number of
observations increases.
 No way of checking the element of bias (or its extent) unless through a resurvey
(census) or use of sample checks.
In general, sampling has the advantages of
 Simplicity,
 cost reduction and
 Timeliness.
A small well designed and constructed sample can give more accurate information than a larger
sample because it can be much better managed and the data collected on individuals may be
more reliable accordingly.
Sampling frame:
 It is also called source list from which sample is to be drawn.
 A sampling frame is a list that closely approximates all the elements in the
population.
 If a sampling frame is not available, you have to prepare it if the size of the
population is small.
 Such a list should be comprehensive, reliable and appropriate.
Sampling units:
 They are the collections of elements, which do not overlap and exhaust the entire of
the population.
 Sampling unit may be a geographical area such as region, district, village, kebele,
etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be an individual.
Sampling elements:
 They are the units of analysis (the units of final observations) or cases in a
population.
 It can be a person, a group, or an organization that is being measured.
Sampling ratio:
 It is the ratio of sample size to size of the target population.
 If, for example, the size of a given population is 20000 and the size of the sample
drawn from this population is 200, then the sampling ratio will be 200 divided by
20000, which equals to 0.01 or 1%.
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Probability and Non-Probability Sampling Methods

There are two principal methods of drawing a sample from a population:

1. Probability (or random) sampling methods and
2. non-probability (or non-random) sampling methods.

1. Probability Sampling Methods:

 Probability sampling method is also called random (or chance) sampling method.

 It is a method of selecting sample from the population in such a way that each
element has known and non-zero chance of being chosen.

 The five major types of probability sampling methods are:

a. Simple random sampling (SRS):
 It is the easiest method of probability sampling.
 It is more commonly used in the case of homogeneous population.
 There are two methods of drawing simple random samples from the population:
Lottery method: For a small population, slips corresponding to the element numbers (in the
sampling frame) may be placed in the container and then we may form a sample by drawing
slips from it.
Random numbers table: a table of random numbers generated by a random process (by
computer or mechanically).
 If the size of the population is so large, the task of selecting a simple random sample is
simpler when we use a random numbers table.
b. Systematic Sampling:
 A sample is selected at every sampling interval, i.e., instead of using a list of random
numbers, you will calculate a sampling interval (say, K).
 Procedure of selecting a sample is that by using a list of a population we simply go
down the list taking every Kth individual, starting with a randomly selected one among
the first n individual.
 Thus, in systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly and the remaining
units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals.
c. Stratified Sampling:
 When the population is heterogeneous with respect to the characteristic in which one is
interested, stratified sampling should be adopted so that it would be a representative
sample.
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  The heterogeneous population is divided in homogeneous subgroups, called strata,
ensuring maximum uniformity within each stratum and largest degree of variability
among strata.
 From each stratum a separate sample is selected using simple random sampling.
 As an example of stratified sampling, assume that an investigator is interested in
securing a particular response that would be representative of undergraduate Haramaya
University students.
 She/he may stratify the population into four strata of freshman, sophomore, junior and
senior students, and take a simple random sample from each stratum.
d. Cluster Sampling:
 In this sampling the population is divided into subpopulation known as clusters.
 But, the units within a cluster are relatively heterogeneous compared to the entire
population.
 From each cluster, a random sample of the desired size will be selected.
 The value of cluster sampling depends on how representative each cluster is of the entire
population.
 If all clusters are similar in this regard, then sampling a small number of clusters will
provide good estimates of the population parameters.
 eg if the investigator wishes to select sample of household from shashamene woreda for
a certain study he/she may cluster the population into different kabale say, kabale2,
kabale3, kabale4.
e. Multistage Sampling:
 This method of sampling is useful when the population is very widely spread and
random sampling is not possible.
 Although cluster sampling is advantageous under certain circumferences, it is generally
less efficient than sampling of individual units directly.
 In such a case the whole population is divided into a number of primary units called
stages, each of which is composed of second stage of units.
 A serious of samples are then taken at successive stages.
 The sample size at each stage is determined by the relative population size at each stage.

2. Non-Probability Sampling Methods:

 Non-probability sampling method is also called non-random sampling method.
 It is not quite possible to introduce randomization under this type of sampling.
 There are several types of non-probability sampling methods.
 Some of these are listed as follows:

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 a) Quota Sampling:
 In case of stratified sampling if the cost of selecting sampling units from each
stratum is very high, then the investigator is assigned a quota (fixed number of
subjects) in each stratum.
 Then the actual selection of persons is left at the discretion of the investigator.
 It emphasizes representation of specific characteristics.
b) Judgment Sampling:
 In this method, sampling units are selected on the judgment of the person doing the
study.
 The underlying assumption is that the unit selected truly represents the entire
population.
 Judgment sampling relies upon belief that participants fit characteristics.
 For example, to find out the potential of drip irrigation technology, a researcher
may go the teachers of Agricultural University.
c) Convenience Sampling:
 Here, an investigator selects the sample at his own convenience.
 This method is based on the assumption that the population is homogeneous and
the individuals selected and interviewed similar information with regard to the
characteristic under study.
 It heavily relies upon convenience and access.
 For example, persons selected from gas stations or petrol pumps to collect
information about the quality of gas or petrol, service or correctness of the
measurement, etc. are supposed to represent the population of gasoline buyers.
d) Snowball Sampling:
 Snowball sampling technique involves the practice of identifying set of
respondents who can, in turn, help the investigator to identify some other person
who will be included in the study.

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  After interviewing this person, s/he will contact the other person and interview
him/her.
 In this way, a chain process continuous until the required number of persons is
interviewed.
 Snowball sampling relies upon respondent referrals of others with like
characteristics.
 This type of sampling is most suitable in qualitative research.
 It is frequently used in marketing research.

Sampling Problems (Errors in Sample Survey)

Error is a word with a special meaning in sampling theory. It is not synonymous with mistake.
However, a mistake by an interviewer or a wrong answer to a question would each contribute to
error in a survey, whether a sample survey or a census. Fieldwork problems, interviewer-induced
bias, clerical problems in managing the amounts of data, etc would also contribute to error in a
survey, irrespective of whether a sample is drawn or a census is taken. Biases or errors due to
such reasons or sources are called non-sampling error. On the other hand, error which is
attributable to sampling, and which therefore is not present in census gathered information is
called sampling error.
Since a sample has both kind of errors, where as a census has only non-sampling error, you
might conclude that the advantage really rests with the census. However, the scale of taking a
census makes it difficult to reduce the risk of non-sampling error. Many sources of bias, for
instance, management problems, faulty measurement, lost or corrupted data will be easier to
control in a tightly constructed sample survey than in a full census. Moreover, sampling error
can be controlled (or at least the extent of it can be estimated) with sample surveys. Thus, there
are occasions when a sample survey could produce less error overall than full census.
Occasionally, sample results may not be representative. Bad sample can be detected if we check
whether the sample approximately matches with the percentage for gender, race, educational
level, etc given by the latest data from census. In general, there are two types of errors, which
may happen in sample surveys: sampling and non-sampling errors.

(a) Sampling errors:

 Sampling errors are random variations in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters.
 For example, while population mean is fixed for the given population, the sample mean
(which estimates the population mean) will vary from sample to sample.
 A discrepancy will arise between the population parameter and sample statistic.
 The error thus introduced by this statistical discrepancy is called sampling error.
 Sampling errors can be estimated only for probability (or random) samples.
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  Random sampling allows unbiased estimates of sampling error.
 The measurement of sampling errors is known as the precision of the sampling plan.
 Thus, there are two major factors that cause sampling errors:
i. Sample bias:
 This is caused by the method of sample selection.
 When the method of selection is inappropriate, statistical discrepancy between
population parameter and sample statistic will arise and will persist even when the
sample size is large.
 The sample bias is due to selection of the sample, which does not truly represent
the population from which it is drawn.
 Errors due to sample bias could be corrected by the use of proper sampling
method.
ii. By chance: Even in the absence of sample bias, discrepancy between population
parameters and sample statistics could occur due to chance, as a sample will never be the
same as the population from which it is drawn and will never reproduce exactly the
characteristics of the population.
(b) Non-sampling errors: are likely to occur in both sample surveys and censuses. Some of the
non-sampling errors are described as follows:
1. Non-coverage (sampling frame defects): Omission of part of the intended population. For
example, soldiers, students living in campus, people in the hospitals, prisoners, etc are
typically excluded from national sample.
2. Non-response error: Some people refuse to be interviewed because they may be ill, too
busy, or simply don’t trust the interviewer.
3. Response error: This occurs due to response bias, which is a result of vague, inaccurate,
or wrong answers given by the respondent. For example, there may be tendency on the part
of the respondent to make understatement in certain cases (say, income) or to make an
overstatement in certain cases (say, expenditure).
4. Interviewer error: This occurs when some characteristics of the interviewer, such as age
or sex, affects the way in which respondents answer questions. For instance, questions
about a racial discrimination might be differently answered depending on the racial group
of the interviewer.
5. Instrument error: In sample survey a word instrument means the device by which we
collect data- usually refers to a questionnaire to be filled out by the respondent. Different
wording of a question can lead to different answers being given by a respondent. When a
question is badly worded, the resulting error is called instrument error.
6. Observational error: It is a bias due to observation. For instance, in making a visual
estimate of the extent of crop damage due to drought, flood, or a certain disease, an element
of observational error is likely to occur.

Sampling Technique By: Milkessa. D. Robi