International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
Review
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Essential oils (EOs) are liquid extracts derived from various parts of herbal or medicinal plants. They are widely
Nanocomposite film accepted in food packaging due to their bioactive components, which exhibit remarkable antioxidant and
Biodegradable polymer antimicrobial properties against various pathogenic and food spoilage microorganisms. However, the functional
Food packaging processing
efficacy of EOs is hindered by the high volatility of their bioactive compounds, leading to rapid release.
Combining biopolymers with EOs forms a complex network within the polymeric matrix, reducing the volatility
of EOs, controlling their release, and enhancing thermal and mechanical stability, favoring their application in
food packaging or processing industries. This study presents a comprehensive overview of techniques used to
encapsulate EOs, the natural polymers employed to load EOs, and the functional properties of EOs–loaded
biopolymeric particles, along with their potential antioxidant and antimicrobial benefits. Additionally, a thor
ough discussion is provided on the widespread application of EOs–loaded biopolymers in the food industries.
However, research on their utilization in confectionery processing, such as biscuits, chocolates, and others, re
mains limited. Further studies can be conducted to explore and expand the applications of EOs–loaded bio
polymeric particles in food processing industries.
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: mingrui.chen@sicau.edu.cn (M. Chen), lyw@my.swjtu.edu.cn (Y. Liu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130765
Received 3 January 2024; Received in revised form 20 February 2024; Accepted 7 March 2024
Available online 10 March 2024
0141-8130/© 2024 Published by Elsevier B.V.
M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
more. Moreover, the direct applications of essential oils into packaging corn starch and investigated its performance in the presence of three
films have also some other drawbacks, as they may easily release from different emulsifiers. Their findings revealed that the biofilm, which
the films, and jeopardize the shelf life of packaged foods before reaching included sodium caseinate & Zanthoxylum bungeanum essential oil
to consumers. To address this, conjugation of essential oils with different (ZBO), exhibited the highest mechanical strength, while additional in
nanoparticles like TiO2–NPs, Ag–NPs, nano–clays etc. during nano clusion of whey protein isolates led to a significant reduction in water
composite film formulation not only ensures the prolonged release of permeability. Particularly, ZBO improved the bactericidal effectiveness
phenolic compounds but also imparts synergistic antimicrobial and of the starch film against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Listeria
antioxidant activities [20]. monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) by being released from the film.
As depicted in Fig. 1, biopolymeric composite films loaded with Another study conducted by Pirouzifard et al. [33] focused on the pro
essential oil have found widespread use on an industrial scales for duction of active films using potato starch–based nanocomposite films
packaging various perishable food products including fruits [1,21,22], modified with Zedo gum and Salvia officinalis essential oil at varying
vegetables [23], meat [24–26], fish [27], and other products such as concentrations and found that the films containing 1.5 % gum and 500
milk [28], cheese [3], sausage [29], chocolate [30], and juice [31]. The mL of essential oils significantly reduced moisture content, solubility,
main objectives of this research are: a) To explore major biopolymers and water vapor permeability (WVP) while, increased the film thickness,
widely used on a commercial scale for encapsulating plant–extracted opacity, mechanical strength, and antioxidant activity. Those studies
essential oils in recent years; b) To provide a comprehensive overview of represent the potentiality of starch–based biopolymeric nanocomposite
the experimental processes employed in the encapsulation of essential films for food packaging applications (Table 1) [33].
oils into biopolymer-based nanocomposite films or matrix; c) To inves
tigate the functional properties of essential oil–loaded biopolymeric 2.1.2. Zein
particles in food packaging and processing; d) To describe a detailed Zein, a prolamine protein naturally found in corn and manufactured
application of essential oil–loaded biopolymeric particles in food in as a powder from corn gluten meal, exhibits moderate hydrophobicity
dustries. Besides, the purpose of this study is to direct future research in owing to its high content of non–polar amino acids that ensure suitable
the area of biopolymer-based eco–friendly food processing or packaging. barrier to moisture and oxygen compared to other protein films [34].
Zein has several excellent and unique qualities, including elasticity,
2. Biopolymers used for loading essential oil film–forming capacity, flexibility, toughness, compressibility, non
–toxicity, low cost, harmlessness, and biodegradability which make zein
2.1. Polysaccharides a compelling choice as a biodegradable polymer for food packaging
purposes [35]. However, electrospun zein nanofibers face limitations in
2.1.1. Starch food packaging due to weak mechanical properties and a rapid disso
Starch stands out as one of the most abundant sources of bio lution rate [36]. To overcome these limitations, various types of nano
polymers, offering numerous advantages over traditional plastic mate –polymers and other antimicrobial/antioxidant bioactive compounds
rials, including low–cost, biodegradability, edibility, ease of chemical are incorporated during the formulation of packaging films, as outlined
modification, and sustainability. Naturally found in carbohydrates, in Table 1. For instance, in a study by Yi et al. [37], a pH–responsive
starch plays a crucial role in human diets and exists in granular struc colorimetric film based on chitosan/zein composite biopolymers, con
tures of different sizes and shapes in plants. Starch is mainly composed jugated with red radish anthocyanin (RRA) at a concentration of 0 % to
of two glucan molecules, namely amylose and amylopectin and derived 5 %, was produced to monitor the postharvest storage quality of
from a wide range of raw materials [32]. While pure starches exhibit a mushroom (Agaricus bisporus). Their FT–IR test revealed a characteristic
robust film–forming ability, their direct application in food packaging cross–linking between the biopolymer film matrix and the aromatic ring
systems is hindered by low mechanical/barrier properties and high structure of anthocyanin, forming a new bond that significantly
hydrophilicity. To overcome these limitations, an advanced strategy has enhanced film mechanical stability, hydrophobicity, and barrier against
been developed, involving the formulation of starch–based nano environmental air and water vapor. Simultaneously, the applied 5 %
composite films by mixing various nanoscale substances like gums, anthocyanin actively scavenged free radicals by over 80 % as well as
nanoparticles, essential oils etc. that not only increases the mechanical exhibited characteristic color changes from red to green within a pH
and barrier properties of starch films but also imparts desirable anti range of 2 to 12, making it suitable for monitoring the freshness status of
microbial/antioxidant properties (Table 1). To exemplify, Yang et al. mushroom during 5 days of storage at 25 ◦ C. In another study conducted
[13] conducted a study where they developed a green biopolymer from by Cui et al. [35], an active zein nanocomposite film was developed by
Fig. 1. Overview on applications of essential oils-loaded biopolymeric composites in food packaging and processing.
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reasonable price. These attributes distinguish them from other poly encapsulation of essential oils for its excellent properties, including good
mers, making CNFs a significant contributor to the formulation of oxygen barrier, low viscosity at higher concentrations, cost effective
nanocomposite packaging films [39]. As outlined in Table 1, a study by ness, neutral aroma, and an ability to inhibit agglomeration during
Zhu et al. [12] focused on the production of biopolymer composite films storage [44]. However, MD has poor emulsifying ability, necessitating
utilizing cellulose nanoparticles (CNP), natural carnauba wax, and its combination with other polymers during formulation [45]. In a study
pineapple peel cellulose matrix as an alternative to traditional plastic by Radünz et al. [11], thyme (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil (TEO) was
packaging with notable hydrophobicity and sustainability. In compari encapsulated using casein–maltodextrin capsules (as wall materials)
son to a single film, the composite integration of three biopolymers produced through spray–drying process to improve its thermal stability
significantly reduced film surface wettability by improving the contact and prolong antioxidant/antimicrobial properties during the preserva
angle above 100◦ , increased effective barrier to UV radiation in the tion of hamburger–like meat products. The study reported an encapsu
range of 200–400 nm, enhanced TS by 15.45 %, and decreased water lation efficiency above 88 %, attributed to the minimal mechanical
vapor transmission rate by 22.23 %. Additionally, when the composite damage during spray drying and a high affinity of wall materials with oil
polymeric film was applied to cherry tomato preservation, it signifi components, while improving the thermal stability through the encap
cantly extended the shelf life of cherry tomatoes, reducing weight loss sulation of TEO. In addition, the antioxidant activity of the encapsulated
nearly by threefold and increasing antioxidant activity by tenfold. As a oils improved due to the interaction of oil compounds with wall mate
result, it can be suggested that CNPs/CNFs can be a better alternative to rials, leading to controlled release of essential oils. The encapsulation of
traditional plastic materials in biodegradable packaging. TEO increased the content of bioactive phenolic compounds, like
thymol, para–cymene, linalool, caracole, camphor, and gam
2.1.5. Pullulan ma–terpene, exhibiting strong antimicrobial activities against S. aureus,
Pullulan (Pu) is a water–soluble polysaccharide produced by the E. coli, L. monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium). In
yeast Aureobasidium pullulans and widely used in the fabrication of another study by Shahidi Noghabi & Molaveisi [46], cinnamon essential
packaging films for its excellent properties like biodegradability, oil (CEO) was encapsulated into wall materials consisting of 27.87 % wt/
biocompatibility, strong oxygen barrier, non–toxicity, non wt Gum Arabic, 27.59 % maltodextrin, and 44.53 % inulin. The
–carcinogenicity, non–mutagenicity, and edibility [40]. It's a colorless, encapsulation process ensured better retention of cinnamaldehyde and
transparent, odorless, tasteless, and heat–sealable, nonionic, linear, and demonstrated significant antioxidant activity compared to unencapsu
neutral polymer composed of α–(1, 6) repeated malto–triose units via lated oils during 30 days of storage. Microencapsulated essential oils
α–(1, 4) glycosidic bonds. Pullulan–based films exhibit high oil and powders are also employed in various dairy–based food formulation like
oxygen barrier properties, effectively shielding active substance from air cheese. To achieve this, the powder must be sufficiently soluble in water,
and humidity and masking the formation of unpleasant taste and odor whereas essential oils are insoluble. To enhance their solubility,
which have made them suitable candidate to be applied in food pack maltodextrin is incorporated with essential oils, given their high solu
aging. However, challenges arise in the application of pullulan in food bility in water.
packaging due to its inherent hydrophilicity and rigidity [41].
Addressing these challenges can be achieved through strategies such as 2.1.7. Pectin
chemical crosslinking stabilization, blending with essential oils, and Pectin is a water–soluble, acidic, hetero–polysaccharide formed by a
incorporating with other hydrophobic materials that may improve the helical structure of poly β–(1–4)–D–galacturonic acid, containing
physicochemical and antimicrobial features of pullulan films for pack several sugars compounds, including rhamnose, galactose, and arabi
aging. In a study conducted by Chu et al. [42], cinnamon essential oil nose. It is anionic, amorphous, and a non–toxic polymer naturally found
(CEO) nano–emulsions were produced by mixing various ratio of Tween in the cell wall of plants, primarily in various fruit and vegetable peels
80 and employing acoustic energy input and incorporated these nano and pulps. Pectin can be categorized into two groups based on their
–emulsion into the pullulan–based active films. The results revealed that degree of esterification: low–methoxyl pectin (LMP) and high–methoxyl
the incorporation of CEOs nano–emulsion significantly reduced WVP pectin (HMP) [47]. Pectin is highly valued in the food industries for its
and increased EB (5.4 %) due to the hydrophobic and plasticizing na excellent stabilizing and gelling properties, biodegradability, biocom
tures of CEO and enhanced the mobility and flexibility of the nano patibility, and robust film–forming properties. The majority of com
composite chain. CEO, known for its bioactive phenolic compound mercial pectin is derived from apple pomace (methylation, 24 %) and
cinnamaldehyde, demonstrated the potential to combat both Gram– citrus peels (methylation, 74 %) [48]. One of the most promising ap
positive and Gram–negative bacteria, including E. coli and S. aureus plications of pectin lies in the fabrication of active nanocomposite
[42]. Further, Luís et al. [43] developed an active packaging film by packaging films incorporated with various bioactive compounds, such as
blending rockrose (Cistus ladanifer) essential oil (REO) with bioactive essential oils. In a recently published study, the addition of 2 % pectin
pullulan–based films to control the growth of decay– and dis Pickering emulsion containing baobab seed oil into the sodium alginate/
ease–causing foodborne microorganisms. The study observed an in guar gum composite polymer film significantly improved their me
crease in the water contact angle of the films from 65◦ to 74◦ by chanical and barrier properties through the formation of coordinated
incorporating essential oil, indicating improved hydrophobicity of the hydrogen and covalent bonding between the –OH and COOH end groups
pullulan films. The REO in the films contained multiple bioactive of pectin and –OH group of the aromatic structures of baobab seed oil
phenolic compounds, including camphene, bornyl acetate, trans loaded emulsion, as confirmed by their FT-IR spectra. Furthermore, the
–pinocarveol, and α–pinene that exhibited stronger antibacterial activ essential oil showed a synergistic effect with the composite polymers,
ities against Gram–positive bacteria compared to Gram–negative boosting the maximum antioxidant activity to 88.26 % and expanding
bacteria and acted as a promising quorum sensing inhibitor. In addition, the diameter of the bacterial inhibitory circle to 9.50 mm against E. coli
electronic microscopy images showed that the incorporation of REO and 19.33 mm against S. aureus. Consequently, the composite
significantly increased the anti–biofilm activity of the pullulan films biopolymer maintained the quality and shelf life of mushroom for 30
against S. aureus ATCC 25923 and L. monocytogenes LMG 16779 biofilms days under refrigerated storage condition [14].
[43]. Therefore, pullulan–based films incorporating various essential
oils emerge as promising candidates for biodegradable active packaging. 2.1.8. Carrageenan
Carrageenan is a high molecular weight polysaccharide containing a
2.1.6. Maltodextrin chemical structure of repeated units of 3–linked β–ᴅ–galactopyranose
Maltodextrin (MD) is a white polysaccharide powder derived from and 4–linked 3,6– anhydro–α–ᴅ–galactopyranose or 4–linked
partially hydrolyzed starchy vegetables. It is widely used for the α–ᴅ–galactopyranose with sulfate groups (-O-SO3-). It is a
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water–soluble, linear polysaccharide naturally collected from red proteins are apparently transparent and possess strong gas barrier
seaweed species of Eucheuma spinosum (Eucheuma denticulatum) or properties but do not exhibit either any moisture/water vapor barrier
Eucheuma cottonii (Kappaphycus alvarezii) and classified into three properties or strong mechanical properties due to their high hydrophi
groups according to their degree/types of sulfate groups: κ (mono licity and incompatibility. To improve their mechanical properties,
–sulfate), ι (di–sulfate) and λ (tri–sulfate) carrageenans [49]. Among compatibility, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties, plasticizers,
these, κ–carrageenan is widely applied in the food industry as additives and many other edible compounds like polymers, essential oils, and
or as biodegradable packaging materials due to its excellent gelling, nanoparticles are blended during film formulation (Table 1) [15]. A
emulsifying, stabilizing, film–forming properties, protein binding ca study by Gohargani et al. [56] produced such biodegradable films based
pacity, and biocompatibility [50]. However, the high hydrophilic nature on whey protein isolate (WPI)/chitosan nanocomposites incorporated
of neat κ–carrageenan poses some drawbacks such as poor mechanical with TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) and Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZEO)
and barrier properties. To address these drawbacks, recent studies have and characterized their physicochemical and functional properties for
focused on combining carrageenan with other biopolymers and active active packaging. The SEM analysis reported a uniform surface structure
compounds for the fabrication of nanocomposite films. In a study by in which TiO2 NPs and ZEO were homogenously dispersed into WPI
Prasetyaningrum et al. [51], sodium alginate/κ–carrageenan–based matrix. Moreover, FT-IR and XRD findings exhibited strong hydrogen
edible films were produced by mixing with clove essential oil (CEO), and and hydrophobic amorphous interactions occurring between the WPI/
the physicochemical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of the chitosan nanocomposite and TiO2–NPs, increasing the water vapor
modified films were characterized. κ–Carrageenan is a water–soluble barrier and mechanical properties of the composite films. Additionally,
polymer, while sodium alginate (SA) has slightly hydrophobic nature TiO2–NPs had a synergistic effect with ZEO and showed potential anti
that resists polymer–polymer intermolecular interactions. Therefore, bacterial activities against S. aureus, E. coli, and L. monocytogenes. Thus,
CaCl2 was applied as a crosslinking agent to the polymeric matrix. The whey protein––based films can be used as active packaging materials.
study observed an increase in the tensile strength (TS) of the film from
20.96 to 26.21 MPa, while the elongation at break (EB) reduced from 70 2.2.2. Gelatin
% to 20 % with the increased concentration of CaCl2. This was mainly Gelatin, a type of tasteless and colorless water–soluble protein
due to the interaction of Ca2+ ions with COO– groups of the SA group, derived from the partial or full hydrolysis of hydrophobic fibrous
creating a denser layer of films by forming ionic bond between the layers collagen, is widely utilized in food packaging for its biocompatibility,
[52]. Moreover, the hydrophobic nature of CEO reduced the solubility of biodegradability, non–toxicity, and easy availability. The primary
the films, and its major bioactive compounds like eugenol and car sources of gelatin include pig skin (46 %), bovine hides (29.4 %), pig and
yophyllene exhibited suitable radical scavenging properties up to 90.32 cattle bones (23.1 %), and fish skin (1.5 %). Based on the extraction
% and antimicrobial properties against E. coli and Bacillus cereus. methods, gelatin can be categorized into two groups: type–A gelatin
Therefore, the combination of carrageenan with other bioactive sub (acid extraction) and type–B gelatin (alkaline extraction). Gelatin pos
stances can find wide application in food preservation. sesses a triple–helix structure formed by seven different amino acids,
which is denatured at a temperature around 40 ◦ C. However, in food
2.1.9. Gum Arabic packaging applications, gelatin has some limitations due to its hydro
Gum Arabic (GA) is a hetero–polysaccharide naturally derived from philic nature, which causes a poor barrier to moisture and water vapor.
the branches or trunks of Acacia trees and is considered the best gum for Besides, native gelatin films cannot provide enough bioactivities like
use in oil–in–water emulsion formulations due to its excellent emulsi antioxidant/antimicrobial during food preservations [57]. Incorpora
fying and encapsulating potentialities [53]. It contains the main skeleton tion of 1 % lemon essential oil (LEO) was proven to significantly improve
of 1 and 3 beta–galactopyranose, and lateral galactopyranoses or arab the tensile strength, barrier properties and elongation at break of
inose chains [54]. Gum Arabic is also considered as a polyelectrolyte gelatin/chitosan composite films due to the formation of strong ionic
because of its uronic acid contents, exhibiting strong electrostatic in cross–linking between the carboxylic acid groups of LEO and the amino
teractions with various cationic polymers like chitosan, modified groups of gelatin molecules. Moreover, the cross–linked structures
starches, or others, resulting in the production of complex film-like retained the volatile bioactive compounds of LEO, including sabinene,
structures [55]. These complex films are suitable for the encapsulation benzene, limonene, cyclohexane, 3–cyclohexane–1 methanol etc.,
and delivery of sensitive bioactive compounds. In a study by Xue et al. providing antioxidant and antimicrobial properties to the composite
[53], chitosan and GA–based films incorporated with cinnamon essen films and extending the shelf life of apple at 7 days refrigerated storage
tial oil (CEO) were produced, and their physicochemical and antioxidant [58]. Another study performed by Sadi and Ferfera-Harrar [59], a car
properties were observed. FT–IR analysis reported that the addition of boxymethyl cellulose/gelatin–based biopolymeric intelligent film con
GA caused more electrostatic interactions with chitosan, hindering the taining red cabbage anthocyanin and pistacia leaves essential oil (PEO)
hydrogen bonding of chitosan with free water, and ultimately reducing was fabricated to monitor the shelf life of shrimp. They observed that
the permeability of water to the films. Moreover, the emulsifying ten PEO significantly enhanced the film's UV barrier capacity to 98 %,
dency of GA facilitated the dispersion of hydrophobic essential oil in the surface hydrophobicity (WCA 92.49◦ ), DPPH radical scavenging rate by
emulsion and reduced molecular aggregations. Additionally, the mo 93 %, and potential antibacterial activities against Salmonella spp.,
lecular interaction of chitosan and GA retained the volatile phenolic E. coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa). In addition, the
compounds of EOs, ensuring prolong antioxidant activity in composite application of anthocyanin enhanced the color changing ability of film
films. within a pH of 2 to 10, facilitating the easy evaluation of the freshness or
spoilage level of shrimp during room temperature storage.
2.2. Protein
2.2.3. Soy protein isolate
2.2.1. Whey protein Soy protein isolate (SPI), byproduct of soybeans, is extensively har
Whey is a liquid dairy byproduct formed through the coagulation of vested in Brazil, particularly in the state of Paraná. Recognized as a
casein in dairy industries, containing over 90 % of water–soluble pro film–forming protein, SPI is widely used in biodegradable packaging
teins. It also contains two major proteins including ß–lactoglobulin, and owing to its exceptional properties, like accessibility, eco–friendliness,
α–lactalbumin, which are widely used for the development of biode cost–effectiveness, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and favorable
gradable edible films in food packaging and preservation due to their mechanical properties and also provides suitable barrier to oxygen and
easy availability and excellent characteristics, such as emulsifying, oils [60]. However, the application of SPI in food packaging is not
foaming, gelling, and film–forming properties [39]. In general, whey without drawbacks, as SPI contains multiple polar functional groups in
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its protein structures, such as amino, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and thiol into a powdered form within a short time (typically 5–30 s) without any
groups. These groups contribute to the high affinity of SPI–based films to thermal damage, thereby retaining the quality of encapsulated nano
water and moisture, and sometimes compromising the mechanical particles [67]. More than 80 % of encapsulation activities in the food
strength of the films. To overcome these challenges, various effective industry are conducted using this process [68]. However, in laborator
strategies, including physical, enzymatic, and chemical modifications, y–scale setting, spray–drying encapsulation of essential oils is carried
cross–linking, side–chain modification, acetylation, esterification, out in a stepwise manner, as outlined in Table 2. Initially, a uniform
denaturation, mixing with other polymers, or impregnation with various emulsion containing wall materials (such as maltodextrin, modified
antioxidant/antimicrobial compounds, have been employed to improve starch, gum Arabic etc.) and encapsulating substances (like essential
their functional properties (Table 1) [61]. A study by Ye et al. [62] oils) is produced through mixing and homogenizing with required
aimed to reduce the water sensitivity properties of SPI–based films by quantities [69]. The core spray–drying process is performed using a
modifying them with stearic acid using the bio–conjugation technique lab–scale spray dryer equipped with a two–fluid internal mixing nozzle
and observed its successful grafting through ATR–FTIR analysis. The atomizer and a drying chamber. A certain amount of emulsion solution
incorporation of 10 wt% stearic acid significantly improved the water is taken to the spray dryer and subjected to atomization through the
vapor barrier by 35.3 %, reduced moisture content by 35.8 %, and nozzle with a specific feed rate. At the same time, compressed air flow is
decreased water absorption by 74.4 %. Meanwhile, the water contact passed towards the inlet chamber with specific flow rate. As a result,
angle increased from 45.8◦ to 104.6◦ , indicating improved surface hy essential oil–containing droplets are turned into powdered form's mi
drophobicity. These improvements were primarily attributed to the crocapsules. Usually, the inlet air temperature is maintained at
replacement of hydrophilic amino groups with hydrophobic long carbon 160–170 ◦ C, whereas the outlet temperature is set at 70–90 ◦ C. Finally,
chains on the proteins, as well as the formation of a more tortuous path the spray–dried microcapsules are collected from the outlet chamber
for water molecules [63]. and stored in a glass bottle in refrigerated storage [70]. Likewise,
Nguyen et al. [71] found that spray–dried encapsulation of roselle an
2.2.4. Casein thocyanins with maltodextrin (as the wall material) at equal ratio of core
Casein is a phosphoprotein derived from the acidification of raw to shell material ensured the maximum retention of its major volatile
skim milk, comprising a substantial protein content (95 %) and colloidal compounds. Additionally, this method achieved the highest microen
calcium phosphate (5 %). With a molecular weight of 20–25 kDa and an capsulation efficiency at 50.28 % and drying yields at 73.6 %.
isoelectric point ranging from 4.5 to 5, casein serves as an amphiphilic
nano–carrier that encapsulates lipophilic substance and also ensures 3.2. Freeze drying
homogenous distribution in food system, protecting bioactive nutri
tional compounds from UV radiation and oxidation during food pro Freeze drying technique offers distinct advantages over spray drying,
cessing and storage [20]. Conversely, sodium caseinate (SC) is a particularly when encapsulating heat–sensitive bioactive compounds
modified form of casein obtained through the acidic precipitation of like oils or flavors, as it eliminates the need for exposing them to high
milk and subsequent solubilization with sodium hydroxide. Compared temperature. Additionally, spray drying activities may cause the dena
to the synthetic polymers, SC–based films offer superior barrier against turation of various bioactive compounds in oils, including fatty acid
carbon dioxide, oxygen, flavor, aroma, and exhibit favorable compositions, tocopherols, and others phenolic compounds, which re
film–forming and thermoplastic properties by forming intermolecular duces the quality of encapsulated products [72]. Freeze–drying ensures
interactions through their large polar groups [64]. Despite these ad good–quality products with rapid entrapment efficiency by maintaining
vantages, casein films suffer from poor extensibility and easily degraded minimal thermal and oxidative damages. The freeze–drying process
by microbial contamination, limiting its application in food packaging. commences with the preparation of an emulsion solution. Appropriate
To address this, the incorporation of organic or inorganic nano amounts of wall materials (such as maltodextrin, trehalose dihydrate,
–enforcements has gained great attention to enhance the extensibility etc.) and vegetable oils are mixed with distilled water, subjected to
and functionality of casein–based biodegradable films in food packaging centrifugation at a specific rotation, and finally filtered using Nylon or
(as outlined in Table 1). In a study by Ranjbaryan et al. [65], nano others filters to separate insoluble substances. The resulting solution is
composite active films based on SC were developed, reinforced with 5 % then poured into Petri dishes and frozen for at least 14–24 h. Subse
(w/w of SC) nano–emulsified cinnamon essential oil (CEO–NE) as a quently, the frozen sample is transferred to a vacuum freeze dryer for
bioactive substance, and (2.5–5)% (w/w of SC) cellulose nanofiber rapid drying. Usually, the ice condenser temperature of freeze drier is set
(CNF). The inclusion of CNF led to strong interactions with the free between − 42 to50◦ C, and the vacuum pressure at 0.4 Mbar. Following
hydroxyl groups of SC, significantly improving the mechanical and 48 h of freeze–drying, the resulted dried powder is placed in an airtight
barrier properties of casein–based films. It enhanced antioxidant activity container and stored in a silica gel–based desiccator [73]. Numerous
by over 65 % and facilitated controlled release of CEO from composite studies have employed the single freeze–drying method or combined it
films. Moreover, the CEO–NE, containing 80 % cinnamaldehyde, with other techniques to encapsulate essential vegetable oils. Ban et al.
exhibited antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, Salmonella [73] produced freeze–dried Zingiber officinale essential oil powders using
enteritidis, and Psedomonas aeroginosa. Consequently, SC/CNF/ chitosan (CH) and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as wall ma
CEO–loaded films have the potential to maintain the quality and extend terials and evaluated their quality through spray drying. Their study
the storage life of dry and oxidation–sensitive foods, such as nuts, spices, revealed that freeze–drying EOs with CH & CMC at a ratio of 1:1 showed
bread, and cereal products. significant encapsulation efficiency of 88.50 %, improved nutritional
quality by entrapping volatile compounds (gingerol, curcumene, and
3. Some advanced techniques applied to encapsulate essential zingiberene), and controlled the release of EOs during 15 days of storage
oils into biopolymer composites at room temperature. The morphological study reported that the
microencapsulation of EOs prevented the senescence and extended the
3.1. Spray drying storage life of fruits. No signs of rot were observed during 7 days of
storage, while better sensory qualities including appearance, crunchi
Spray drying stands out as a highly efficient and widely accepted ness, firmness, juiciness etc., were observed compared to the controlled
technique applied to encapsulate heat–sensitive bioactive compounds products. Alizadeh & Nazari [16] noted that freeze–dried encapsulation
for its cost–effectiveness, equipment availability, rapid operation, ease of thyme essential oil within β–cyclodextrin formed an inclusion com
of industrialization, and production of high–quality nanoparticles [66]. plex structure into the cavity of β–cyclodextrin. This structure retained
Notably, the spray–drying process easily turns heat sensitive compounds phenolic and flavonoid contents with high antioxidant activity,
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Table 2
Methods of encapsulation, their applied biopolymers and improved potentiality of encapsulated essential oils on nanocomposite films.
Encapsulation Pictorial representations Essential oil and other applied Potentiality of biopolymeric films References
techniques biopolymeric wall materials
Spray drying Ginger oleoresin with whey protein Retained maximum level of 6–and 8–gingerol at 89.57 mg/g [15]
isolate (WPI) and gum Acacia (GA). and 12.54 mg/g after encapsulation, emulsion stability index
at 0.88 ± 0.02 & zeta potential at − 27.35 mV and
antioxidant rate at 73.33 %.
Roselle anthocyanins with Achieved the highest microencapsulation efficiency 50.28 %, [71]
maltodextrin and drying yields at 73.6 %.
Cinnamon essential oil, Whey protein Exhibited maximum encapsulation efficiency at 93 %, while [67]
isolate, maltodextrin, and sodium the retention rate of EO was observed at 95 % during 30 days
alginate at 50 ◦ C and 1032 days at room temperature.
Thymus vulgaris essential oil, casein Showed encapsulation efficiency at 88.9 %, strong heat [11]
and maltodextrin stability, high antioxidant activity, in vitro antimicrobial
potentiality against S. aureus, E. coli, L. monocytogenes and
Salmonella typhimurium and in situ against thermotolerant
coliforms and E. coli into hamburger products.
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) Retained majority of volatile compounds including citral [94]
essential oil, maltodextrin. content, showed highest microencapsulation efficiency
(84.75 %), oil retention (89.31 %) and drying rate (84.49 %).
Freeze drying Thymol essential oil, β–cyclodextrin Increased stability & controlled release of TEOs through [16]
with chitosan successful encapsulation, improved antifungal & radical
scavenging activities.
Nutmeg oleoresin essential oils, gum Retained phenolic and flavonoid contents with high [55]
arabic, native and modified OSA antioxidant activity and ensured strong oxidative stability
sorghum starches. during 60 days of storage.
Candlenut essential oil, sodium Exhibited encapsulation efficiency at 64.86 %, reduced lipid [95]
caseinate oxidation by decreasing the peroxide value from 1.24 to 0.49
meq/kg
Zingiber officinale essential oil, Showed encapsulation efficiency at 88.50 %, improved [73]
chitosan (CH) and sodium nutritional quality by entrapping volatile compounds
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) (Gingerol, curcumene and zingiberene) and maintained
appearance, crunchiness, firmness, juiciness etc. during 15
days storage in room temperature.
Emulsion process Black pepper essential oil (BPEO), Controlled release of EO at 58.43 μg/mm2 into water and [7]
gelatin/bacterial cellulose matrix 76.48 μg/mm2 into alcohol solvent respectively after 3 days
of dissolution, 0.4 % BPEO–emulsion effectively exhibited
profound DPPH & ABTS radical scavenging ability above 40
% and 20 %, respectively, inhibited the growth of E. coli and
S. aureus.
Alpinia galanga essential oil with FT-IR result showed strong molecular interaction between [41]
polyvinyl alcohol–acetylated EOs & biopolymers while SEM & AFM ensured good
pullulan polysaccharides compatibility of result biopolymer film that increased the
stability of EOs into polymer matrix. Moreover, the emulsion-
based biopolymer prevented lipid oxidation & inhibited the
growth of S. aureus and E. coli.
Litsea cubeba essential oil, Increased stability, antioxidant activity and improved [96]
triacylglycerol antimicrobial activity against L. monocytogenes and S. baltica.
Cinnamon essential oil, sodium Inhibited flocculation and coalescence, increased barrier to [97]
starch octenylsuccinate based water and oxygen, prolonged antioxidant activity by
Pickering emulsions controlled releasing of CEO and exhibited strong
antimicrobial activity against E. coli, S. aureus, and B. subtilis.
Nano–liposomes Ginger essential oil (GEO), lecithin/ Enhanced the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of GEO [17]
cholesterol even after one month of storage.
Cardamom essential oil, Increased the stability and controlled the delivery of CEO, [75]
phosphatidylcholine enhanced the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities during
one month of storage.
Oregano essential oil, soybean Showed entrapment efficiency at 79.55 %, stimulated [76]
lecithin & phosphatidylcholine antifungal activity against Trichophyton rubrum.
Ionic gelation Clove essential oil, chitosan Showed strong antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, [77]
isolated from spoiled pomegranate and controlled release of
EOs during 56 days of storage.
Clove essential oil, chitosan Ensured retention rate at (55.8–73.4)% and formed [18]
nanoparticles ranged from 223 to 444 nm, while showed
higher antioxidant activity and antibacterial activity against
L. monocytogenes and S. aureus.
Peppermint essential oil, alginate/ Prolonged the shelf–life of encapsulated oil by protecting [98]
maltodextrin and alginate/shellac them from adverse environmental condition.
gum core–shell.
(continued on next page)
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M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
Table 2 (continued )
Encapsulation Pictorial representations Essential oil and other applied Potentiality of biopolymeric films References
techniques biopolymeric wall materials
Electrospinning Carotenoid with zein Electrospinning showed encapsulation efficiency of 81.00 % [19]
encapsulation yield at 66.67 %, zeta potential at − 29.73 mV
& significantly enhanced the thermal stability of Lycopene &
β–carotene.
Thyme essential oil into chitosan Electrospun biopolymer film showed strong mechanical [12]
properties, thermal stability, barrier to air and water vapor,
prolonged the antioxidant and antibacterial activities against
E. coli and S. aureus by controlling the release of bioactive
compounds,
Ginger essential oil into avocado Maximum loading capacity of GEO into starch exhibited as [78]
starch 54.66 %, improved thermal degradation temperature from
165.8 ◦ C to 257.6 ◦ C, suppressed the growth of E. coli.
exhibited maximum inhibitory effects against E. coli & S. aureus, and formed by one or multiple lipids bilayers, used to protect unstable
ensured strong oxidative stability during storage. Thus, the freeze drying bioactive compounds, including EOs from adverse conditions like light,
process stands out as an outstanding technique for encapsulating oxygen, inappropriate pH, and to improve their solubility in water, as
bioactive components. well as to control release at the targeted time and place [74]. Usually,
nano liposomes are nontoxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible as they
3.3. Emulsion process are produced using natural lipids/phospholipids such as phosphatidyl
choline, lecithin, cholesterol, soybean, sunflower oil, and so on as the
Essential oils, known for their high volatility and susceptibility to lipid phase [75]. These lipid phases form complex vehicles with the
decomposition when exposed to light or heat, are often encapsulated bilayer membrane in aqueous solution and easily carry hydrophobic and
through emulsification to improve their functional properties as well as hydrophilic compounds. To prepare nanoliposomes, specific amounts of
to regulate their controlled release in targeted applications. The process ethanol (96 %) and lipid phases (such as lecithin, cholesterol) are dis
begins with the production of biopolymer conjugates, acting as emul solved with different amounts of EOs through continuous stirring at
sifying agents, containing proteins, polysaccharides, glycerol, tween-80, room temperature until uniform dissolution. The entire mixture is then
or others. According to a previous study, the proteins and poly evaporated at 60 ◦ C for 1 h using a rotary evaporator under vacuum
saccharides are dissolved in distilled water, and the pH is adjusted at 7.0 condition to remove the solvent. A smooth film is formed, and the film is
using buffer saline. After freeze drying and 6 days of incubation in a kept at room temperature for 24 h to remove residual anhydrous
ventilated chamber at 60 ◦ C with a relative humidity around 80 %, the ethanol. After that, the dried film is hydrated using buffer saline to
biopolymer substances are dispersed in distilled water with continuous adjust its pH (at 7.4). Simultaneously, the liposomes are homogenized
stirring for 12 h at 4 ◦ C. Glycerol as a plasticizer is then poured into the and sonicated using a sonicator probe with 60 % amplitude of sonication
solution and stirred additionally for 1 h. Subsequently, the targeted EO for 10 min with 20 s ON and 20 s OFF to reduce particle size and to form
is incorporated into the dispersion medium and homogenized using a a unilamellar and stable system. Finally, a suitable liposomal dispersion
high–pressure homogenizer at 70 MPa for 2 passes. The final emulsion is is formed and preserved at 4 ◦ C for at least one month [76]. In a study by
degassed by vacuuming for at least 30 min [110]. Various natural Ekrami et al. [17], ginger essential oil (GEO)–loaded lecithin/choles
polymers, including soy protein, peanut protein, buckwheat protein, terol nano liposomes were produced using thin layer hydration tech
gum acacia, sodium alginate, starch, chitosan etc., are widely used as nique combined with homogenization and sonication. The investigation
emulsifying agents. For instance, Acharya et al. [7] produced black into their physicochemical properties revealed hydrophobic interaction
pepper essential oil (BPEO) (5 % v/v)-based emulsion through the between GEO and the non–polar head of phosphatidylcholine, as indi
emulsification process, combining BPEO, Tween 20, and water at a ratio cated by the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results. Further
of 5:10:85. This emulsion was incorporated into the gelatin/bacterial more, the FT-IR spectra of GEO containing nano liposomes showed a
cellulose matrix (15 % w/v) at different concentration to achieve the vibration pick shifted from 3005 cm− 1 to lower wavenumbers at 2944
final biopolymeric film. The in vitro dissolution profile of BPEO–loaded cm− 1 and 2975 cm− 1, indicating strong hydrogen linkage among water
emulsion into distilled water and 50 % ethanol solvent revealed that the molecules, GEO constituents, and phosphatidylcholine that increased
microsphere exhibited controlled release of EOs at 58.43 μg/mm2 into the stability and controlled the delivery of GEO into the suspension. In
water and 76.48 μg/mm2 into alcohol solvent, respectively, after 3 days addition, liposomal encapsulation enhanced the antimicrobial and
of dissolution. They also observed strong correlation between swelling antioxidant activities of GEO even after one month of storage. Therefore,
properties and the release of EOs from films, significantly increased by nano liposomes present themselves as a suitable carrier for the delivery
increasing the concentration of both biopolymer and BPEO–loaded of EOs to prolong their stability in aqueous–based foods.
emulsion, weakening the hydrogen bond formation, and thereby failing
the entrapment of EOs into the polymer matrix. However, the 3.5. Ionic gelation
biopolymer films containing 0.4 % BPEO–emulsion effectively sup
pressed lipid peroxidation, exhibiting profound DPPH and ABTS radical Ionic gelation represents a simple, cost–effective, efficient, and sol
scavenging ability above 40 % and 20 %, respectively, as well as vent–free encapsulation technique, wherein cationic polymers like chi
inhibiting the growth of E. coli and S. aureus through their active groups, tosan and polyanions such as pentasodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) are
including sabinene, pinene, limonene, and caryophyllene. This study linked to form inter– and intra–molecular cross–linkages without
indicates that emulsion-based encapsulation can be used as a suitable requiring high temperatures or any others toxic cross–linking substances
food preservative for inhibiting microbial or oxidative deterioration of [77]. Ionic gelation results in nanosized particles with high stability and
foods. loading capacity, good solubility in water, as well as the ability to
regulate the release of encapsulated bioactive compounds. In this pro
3.4. Nano liposomes cess, Eos–loaded nanoparticles are produced through a two–step pro
cess, including the formation of oil–in–water emulsion and then ionic
Nano liposomes are regarded as unique delivery vehicles or carriers gelation of this emulsion applying gelatinizing agents. In the first step, a
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M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
1 % (w/v) chitosan solution is prepared by sonication of chitosan in 1 % well as significantly improved thermal stability through the formation of
(v/v) acetic acid for 60 min. The mixture is then filtered to remove strong hydrophobic interaction of surfactant–carotenoid compounds
unwanted substances. Afterward, about 80 mg of Tween 80 is poured and the biopolymer backbone, as depicted by their DSC analysis.
into 50 mL of CH solution, and its pH is controlled to 4.2 by adding
NaOH solution. It is continuously stirred at 50 ◦ C for 90 min to produce a 4. Functional properties of essential oil–loaded biopolymeric
homogeneous mixture. Then, different amounts of EO are incorporated nanocomposites
into the aqueous chitosan solution and properly homogenized at a speed
of 13,000 rpm for 10 min under an ice–bath to achieve a uniform oil 4.1. Enhancer of edible films on food packaging
–in–water emulsion. Subsequently, the gelatinizing agents, TPP, are
added to the emulsion and agitated continuously for 40 min to form As the demand for healthy, safe, and nutritious foods continues to
uniform nanosized particles. Finally, the nanoparticles are collected by rise among consumers, researchers have increasingly turned their focus
centrifugation at 9000 ×g for 30 min at 4 ◦ C, washed several times using to edible films. These films are typically produced using various natural
deionized water, and dried immediately at − 32 ◦ C for 42 h by a freeze and non–toxic biopolymers like polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids,
dryer [18]. Numerous studies applied ionic gelation technique to which can form strong intermolecular structures during the film–form
encapsulate EO. Hadidi et al. [18] demonstrated that the two–step ing process. Moreover, as indicated in Table 3, the incorporation of
emulsion–ionic gelation method for encapsulating CEO with CHNPs plant–extracted essential oils into the films may enhance their perfor
resulted in retention rate of 55.8–73.4 % and the formation of nano mances by showing potential antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. In
particles ranging from 223 to 444 nm. Their FT-IR analysis represented a study by Wang et al. [79], a blend of three different essential oils,
an electrostatic interaction of the ammonium groups of chitosan with including tea tree essential oil, lavender essential oil, and perilla leaf oil
the aromatic group of CEO that successfully encapsulated CEO and (in a ratio of 50:3:3), was encapsulated into starch–based biodegradable
displayed higher antioxidant and antibacterial activities against L. films initially coated with polyurethane. This approach aimed to stim
monocytogenes and S. aureus compared to free CEO. Therefore, this ulate their film's functionality, aroma, and barrier capacity. The result
technique can be used to increase the efficacy of EOs in food products. ing film demonstrated excellent UV blocking potentiality, surpassing 90
%, with an optimal loading capacity of EOs at 59.01 %. Moreover, the
3.6. Electrospinning composite biopolymer film sustained the release of Eos, proving effec
tive in its bactericidal activity against E. coli & S. aureus while pro
Electrospinning is an electro–hydrodynamic atomization process longing the shelf life of berries at room temperature for more than a
wherein a biopolymeric solution containing essential oils is spun or week. The study also highlighted the eco–friendly nature of the
sprayed through the application of a strong electric field to obtain fibers biopolymer film, as 95 % of its constituents degraded into the earth
or particles. Various electrospinning techniques, including blend elec within just 8 days.
trospinning, coaxial electrospinning, electro–spraying, and emulsion
electrospinning exist [12]. Emulsion electrospinning is widely accepted 4.2. Stabilizer of Pickering emulsions
commercially due to its low cost, easy operation, high production effi
ciency, low time consumption, high surface–to–volume ratio, and high Pickering emulsion (PE) represents a category of colloidal suspension
pore density on a sub–micrometer scale. These unique characteristics stabilized by amphiphilic substances like proteins and polysaccharides,
make bio–fibrous films suitable for food packaging, enabling the films to forming a steric elastic film to minimize the interfacial tension and
strongly adhere to numerous microbial cells, disrupt their cell structure, ensure an elastic and solid–like structure [41]. As highlighted in Table 5,
and exhibit antimicrobial activity in the food preservation system [36]. the key characteristics of a PE include stability and viscosity, which are
However, the emulsion electrospinning technique has its limitations, as mainly developed further by using various essential oil–loaded nano
emulsions are vulnerable and prone to destabilization over time through particles through their adsorption mechanisms. Wu et al. [80] developed
processes such as Ostwald ripening, creaminess, coalescence, and a zein/pectin–based composite polymer film with a Pickering emulsion
gravitational separation. These factors hinder the formation of thin fi loaded with cinnamon essential oil (CEO) to maintain functional char
bers during the spinning process. To address this, surfactants like tween acteristics in innovative food packaging in their study. The formulated
80, span 20, glycerol, or others are often added during emulsion Pickering emulsion showed a monomodal size distribution and stimu
formulation to prolong its stability during electrospinning [19]. Typi lated a zeta potential value above − 30 mV, facilitating by abundance of
cally, an electrospinning setup consists of a moderate/viscous polymer negatively charged pectin, ensuring long–term stability in film formu
solution to be electrospun, a flow rate controller, a glass/plastic syringe, lation. Moreover, the addition of only 2 % pectin into biopolymeric film
a collector plate or rotating drum, and a voltage–producing unit [78]. In significantly enhanced their barrier properties and suppressed the for
a study by İnan-Çınkır et al. [19], the electrospinning of carotenoids mation of volatile base nitrogen from fresh beef by controlling the
extracted from watermelon pulp aimed to increase their durability and release of active compounds from CEO during 10 days of chilled storage.
functionality. Conducted at room temperature using modern Nanotel In another study conducted by Feng et al. [81], cinnamon essential oil
NTEE 80–1 electrospinning instrument, a microemulsion was prepared (CEO) and zein nanoparticle solution (ZNS) were incorporated into
by mixing carotenoid extract with a suitable volume of span–20 and Pickering emulsion and observed their effects on it. The composition of
glycerol at room temperature. This mixture was then incorporated with 20 g ZNS + 15 g butter oil +5 g CEO Pickering emulsion exhibited the
25 % (w/v) zein at a concentration of 40 % based on fresh zein weight to maximum zeta potential value of − 50.61 mV, indicating good stability
form the final feed solution. The feed emulsion was loaded into a syringe of PE. Moreover, storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G″) of PE
pump maintaining an electrical conductivity between the syringe and significantly increased with the incorporation of CEO, implying strong
the collector plate, as illustrated in the pictorial column of Table 2. The stability of PE at the oil–water interfacial layer. This improved stability
electrospinning parameters were set with an electric voltage of 15–25 was mainly due to the formation of stable interfacial adsorption layer in
kV, a feed flow rate of 1.5–3 mL/h, and a distance between the syringe the PE through the chemical interactions between the aldehyde groups
tip and collector plate maintained at 10–15 cm. The entire process was of cinnamaldehyde and amino group of zein nanoparticles [82]. Thus,
conducted at room temperature, and the electrospun biopolymer fiber the incorporation of essential oil–loaded nanoparticles proves effec
was stored at − 65 ◦ C for periodic examination of its characteristics. The tiveness in stabilizing Pickering emulsion.
electrospun biopolymer fiber produced in their study ensured a
maximum encapsulation efficiency of Lycopene and β–carotene by
81.00 %, encapsulation yield at 66.67 %, zeta potential at − 29.73 mV, as
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M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
Table 3
Application of essential oil–loaded nanoparticles in edible biopolymeric films, their possible mechanisms, and improved features on food packaging.
Nanocomposite Applied essential oils (EO) Possible mechanisms/reasons Improved features of EO loaded nanocomposite films References
biofilms
Konjac Oregano essential oil Hydrogen bonding between CS and Remarkably stimulated the mechanical properties including [3]
glucomannan/ β–CD@OEO tensile strength & elongation at break, thermal stability,
chitosan surface hydrophobicity and reduced water vapor transmission
rate.
Starch/polyurethane Tea tree essential oil, Hydrogen bonding Improved UV blocking potentiality above 90 % by having [79]
lavender essential oil, perilla suitable loading capacity of EOs at 59.01 %, bactericidal
leaf oil activity against E. coli & S. aureus, prolonged the shelf life of
berries at room temperature for more than a week, highly
biodegradable.
Polylactic acid/ Oregano essential oil Hydrogen interaction between polymer Nanocomposite film showed high resistance to heat & [2]
polycaprolactone structure & active site of phenolic moisture, prevented deformities, improved surface
compounds of OEO. hydrophobicity & antifungal activity.
Chitosan/ZnO–NPs Melissa essential oil (MEO) Intermolecular interactions between Decreased film's solubility and WVP, while increased film's [99]
chitosan/ZnO–NPs and thickness and mechanical strength
MEO, homogenous dispersion of
ZnO–NPs, reduced binding sites for free
H2O molecules
Zein/chitosan Clove essential oil (CLO) Prolonged the tortuous pathway for water Enhanced the film's thickness, reduced WVP, improved the [111]
molecules, plasticizing effect of CLO. mobility and elasticity of the polymer chains that increased
film's EAB.
WPI/CNFs/TiO2 Rosemary essential oil Building complex network structure of Significantly improved their TS, resistance to water vapor and [39]
(REO) REO and TiO2 with WPI/CNFs film, Young's Modulus (EM) while reduced EB.
reduced hydrophilicity.
Zein/chitosan Cinnamon essential oil Hydrogen and covalent linkage between Reduced WVP, while, improved mechanical strength as well as [34]
(CEO) zein matrix and CEO, hydrophobic and exhibited strong antimicrobial activity of film.
plasticizing nature of CEO.
WPI/CuO–NPs Coconut essential oil, Hydrophobic nature of EO, formation of Reduced WVP and moisture content, while, increased tensile [100]
paprika extract hydrogen bonding between EO and strength, elasticity, and enhanced antimicrobial activity.
polymer matrix.
PLA/ZnO–NPs Zataria essential oil (ZEO) High phenolic contents scavenged free Significantly increased antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [101]
and Menthe essential oil radicals and also destroyed microbial of the film.
(MEO) cells.
Chitosan biopolymer Nano–liposomal garlic Hydrogen and covalent bonding between Increased film thickness, mechanical strength except TS, [102]
essential oil (NLGEO) the chitosan and polyphenolic reduced WVP and exhibited strong antioxidant and
compounds of EO. antimicrobial activities. While rising trends were observed in
moisture content and film solubility.
Grass carp collagen/ Lemon Strong interactions between polymer Reduced oxygen permeability, increased mechanical strength [25]
chitosan essential oil (LEO) chain and LEO, increased hydrophobicity including improved TS & EB, enhanced antioxidant and
of film. antimicrobial properties.
4.3. Antioxidant activities chocolate. To observe the antioxidant activity of CEO, they extracted
essential oil through a traditional ultrasonic–assisted technique using
The oxidative degradation of foods, resulting from the close contact various solvents and calculated their TPC. The methanolic C. burmannii
of their nutritional compounds with atmospheric oxygen, is one of the oleoresin contained TPC up to 310 mg/g EE (epicatechin equivalents),
main reasons for food spoilage and the loss of nutritional quality. The exhibiting antioxidant activity up to 260 mg TAE (tannic acid equiva
generation of hydroxyl radicals in biological systems is highly sensitive lents) per gram of dry extract. Moreover, the encapsulation of cinnamon
and prone to oxidative degradation of cell membrane lipids. For this extract into white chocolate significantly enriched its phenolic content
reason, ensuring the antioxidant property of active packaging films is from 47.6 to 1060.6 μg EE/g, as well as improved antioxidant and FRAP
essential to protect food products from oxidative spoilage. As outlined in activity. This strong antioxidant activity was due to the major phenolic
Table 5, in recent years, plant–extracted essential oils conjugated with components of CEO, including catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B2,
various nanoparticles are significantly applied in active or intelligent quercitrin, 3,4–dihydroxybenzaldehyde, protocatechuic acid, and cin
packaging for their high content of phenolic compounds, which are namic acid, which stabilized free radicals through generating hydrogen
responsible for strong antioxidant activity. As detailed in our earlier atom and formed antioxidant radicals. The resulted antioxidant radicals
review, the assessment of antioxidant activity of packaging films em are more stable, inhibit auto–oxidation, and save foods from oxidative
ploys various techniques like total phenolic content (TPC) analysis, 2, deterioration (Fig. 2). Therefore, essential oil can be extensively used in
2–azino–di–3–ethylbenzthiazoline–6–sulfonate (ABTS+), and 2, active/intelligent food packaging as a suitable antioxidant.
2–diphenyl–1–picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, and ferric
reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) analysis [57]. A study by Goswami 4.4. Antimicrobial activities
et al. [83] produced an edible biopolymeric coating based on 0.7 % guar
gum and 0.3 % chitosan containing different formulation of essential oil The proliferation of foodborne pathogens is a common occurrence in
to preserve the postharvest quality of Khasi mandarin fruit. They noticed perishable food products, posing a significant hazard to consumer
that the composite biopolymer containing clove and cinnamon oil health. Numerous studies have indicated the high effectiveness of
significantly enhanced the DPPH radical scavenging power by 82.55 %, essential oils against Gram–positive bacteria, with less impact on
while the uncoated control group showed this property only at 21.70 % Gram–negative bacteria. This disparity arises because EOs typically
on the 20th day of storage. This improved antioxidant activity of the film denature the phospholipid membrane within the cell, without affecting
was mainly due to the phenolic components of EOs. Similarly, the external layer. In contrast, the cell walls of most Gram–negative
Muhammad et al. [5] evaluated the potential of cinnamon (Cinnamo bacteria are composed of a complex peptidoglycan layer with various
mum burmannii) oleoresins essential oil (CEO) applied to white proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides, and they also contain an additional
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M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
Fig. 2. Antimicrobial and antioxidant mechanisms of EOs-loaded biopolymer particles during food preservation.
outer membrane that provides extra protection to bacterial cells [34]. antimicrobial activity was primarily attributed to the active compounds
The conjugation of various biopolymers nanoparticles with essential oils of SHEO, which attacked the external membrane of bacterial cell,
has synergistic antimicrobial effects on active packaging films. This not released liposaccharides, and increased the permeability of the cyto
only enhances the antimicrobial and hydrophobic properties of the plasmic membrane to ATP, resulting in the release of ATP from bacterial
packaging films but also reduces the volatilization rate of essential oils, cells and causing ultimate cellular death (Fig. 2).
thus improving the antimicrobial efficacy and duration of composite
films. The synergistic antimicrobial activities of various essential oil 5. Applications of essential oil–loaded nanocomposites on food
–loaded nanoparticles have been investigated in numerous studies processing and packaging
(Table 4). Farahani et al. [84] developed Lepidium sativum seeds muci
lage (LSSM)-based edible coating conjugated with different concentra 5.1. Fruits and vegetables products
tion (0–1.5 %, w/w) of Satureja hortensis essential oil (SHEO) and
analyzed their antibacterial activities during refrigerated storage of Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable due to their susceptibility
lamb meat. Through GC–MS analysis, two major active compounds were to oxidative or microbial deterioration during the postharvest period.
confirmed in SHEO: Isopropyl Myristate at 59.14 % and Carvacrol at The shelf life of these perishable fruits and vegetables is greatly affected
37.83 %, along with various other phenolic compounds. The incorpo by various factors, including continuous respiration, rapid weight loss
ration of 1.5 % SHEO into biopolymer coating significantly reduced total during storage, senescence, and pathogens. To ensure the prolonged
count, psychotropic count, yeast, and mold, while retaining the fresh high quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, innovative approaches such
ness quality of lamb meat during 18 days of cold chain. This improved as the formulation of edible essential oil–loaded nanoparticles have
Table 4
Synergistic antimicrobial activities of essential oil loaded biopolymer composites against targeted microorganisms in food products.
Types of essential oils Synergistic biopolymers/NPs Antimicrobial substances Targeted microorganisms References
Hanseniaspora uvarum Konjac glucomannan H. uvarum Aspergillus niger, Penicillium, Alternaria [4]
alterniformis, Pseudomonas spp.
Satureja hortensis essential oil Lepidium sativum seeds mucilage Isopropyl myristate, Significantly reduced total count, [84]
carvacrol psychotropic count, yeast, and mold
Ginger oleoresin Whey protein isolate and gum Acacia. 6–and 8–gingerol E. coli and 22.68 mm against S. aureus. [15]
Carvacrol Pectin, 2–hydroxypropyl–β–cyclodextrin Carvacrol Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria alternate [6]
Cinnamon essential oil (CEO) TiO2–NPs Cinnamaldehyde Salmonella typhimurium, E. coli, and [103]
S. aureus
Melissa essential oil (MEO) ZnO–NPs Citronellal and geraniol E. coli [99]
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil Casein–maltodextrin Thymol and carvacrol S. aureus, E. coli, L. monocytogenes and [11]
Salmonella typhimurium
Basil essential oil (BEO) − Linalool Carnobacterium maltaromaticum 9P, [104]
C. maltaromaticum D1203, E. coli 32 and
S. salivarius GM
Litsea cubeba essential oil (LCEO) Medium–chain triacylglycerol (MCT) and … L. monocytogenes and S. baltica [96]
phosphate–buffered saline (PBS)
Cardamom essential oil (CEO) Phosphatidylcholine Carvacrol, thymol, and E. coli and S. aureus [75]
methyl eugenol
Bunium persicum essential oil (BPEO) Chitosan Cuminaldehyde, sabinene, Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B1 [105]
and γ–terpinen
Rosemary essential oil (REO) TiO2–NPs Cineole, α–pinene, Psychotropic bacteria [20]
comphene and camphor
Zataria multiflora Boiss. essential oil ZnO–NPs Carvacrol and menthone S. aureus and B. cereus [101]
(ZEO) and Menthe piperita L.
essential oil (MEO)
Gum essential oil (GEO) Silica nanoparticles α–Pinene, ß–pinene, S. aureus, Salmonella enterica, E. coli, and [28]
sabinene, and camphene L. monocytogenes
Garlic essential oil (GEO) Chitosan and whey protein Sulfur constituents (diallyl Psychotropic bacteria and lactic acid [29]
sulfide derivatives) bacteria
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M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
achieved significant attention in the food industries. Peaches are a antioxidants or antimicrobial substances that have been observed to
highly valued fruit cultivated worldwide for its consumer demand. improve the overall quality of meat products. In a recent study, Sharaby
However, without appropriate preservation practices, its maximum et al. [26] developed an active and intelligent film using PVA/high
shelf life is limited to 3–5 days in market storage due to issues like –amylose starch/montmorillonite, incorporating anthocyanins to
extreme weight loss, pathogenic growth, or other environment stress. In monitor the spoilage of chicken meat under adverse storage conditions.
a study conducted by Khan et al. [21], it was demonstrated that the The addition of montmorillonite significantly increased the mechanical
quality and shelf life of peach fruit can be extended up to 7 days by strength from 18.97 MPa to 22.51 MPa and doubled the water vapor
coating it with a sodium alginate biopolymer solution containing barrier of the biocomposite polymer film. Anthocyanins were success
mousami peel extract (MPE). They successfully identified several func fully entrapped in the biopolymer, with only 12.21 %, 6.51 %, and 2.48
tional groups related to mousami extract, as confirmed by FT-IR that % of anthocyanin released into water, 50 % ethanol, and 95 % ethanol,
synergistically improved the defense–related activities of the respectively, after 270 min of dissolution. This ensured an extended film
biopolymer coating. The resulting edible coating significantly retained antioxidant activity exceeding 60 %, a maximum inhibitory diameter for
normal fruit weight, suppressed auto–oxidation of fruit, preserved usual S. aureus at 25 ± 1.0 mm, as well as exhibited various colors from red to
ascorbic acid level, and kept yeast and mold counts at a minimum (4.17 light blue at different stages of chicken spoilage during 5 days at 7 ◦ C
± 0.12 log CFU/g), while the control group reached their maximum storage. Similarly, Zhang et al. [85] developed a chitosan–gelatin
count at 7.15 ± 0.09 log CFU/g. Thus, the polymeric coating effectively coating incorporated with tarragon essential oil–loaded nanoparticles
maintained the storage quality of peach. Bell pepper (Capsicum annuum (TEO–NPs) to preserve pork slices during 16 days of refrigerated storage.
L.) is another popular vegetable crop containing nutrients like ascorbic The thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value was
acid, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and carotenoids, most of which are measured to determine the rancidity of meat through lipid oxidation.
prone to deterioration during storage. Coating this vegetable with Her The control pork slices showed a TBARS value of 0.31 mg MDA/kg on
acleum persicum essential oil (HPEO)–loaded chitosan nanoparticles the first day which was significantly increased to 2.14 mg MDA/kg at the
(HPEO–CHNPs) significantly improved its physical and nutritional end of storage period, exceeding the rancidity level (2 mg MDA/kg) and
quality, as well as enzymatic activities. During 18 days of storage, un indicating rapid lipid oxidation. On the other hand, the
coated vegetables lost their firmness and weight by 26.6 % and 14.4 %, CH–GEL–TEO–NPs coated sample maintained the TBARS values below
respectively, due to cell wall degradations by polygalacturonase and 0.72 mg MDA/kg during the first 8 days and below 1.22 mg MDA/kg at
β–galactosidase enzymes. In contrast, HPEO–CHNPs coated vegetables the end of storage. This was mainly due to the slow release of TEO
showed minimal loss of firmness and weight (6.8 % and 6 % respec phenolic compounds, especially estragole (methyl chavicol), that pre
tively) owing to the high antioxidant phenolic contents of HPEO, which vented lipid oxidation by providing hydrogen atoms or electrons into the
reduced cell wall degradation. Moreover, the TPC of HPEO–CHNPs meat sample. While the initial total viable count (TVC) value of un
coated products continued to increase by 62.2 % after 24 days of storage coated sample was 2.63 log CFU/g that was surprisingly exceeded the
compared to initial value, while uncoated vegetables lost the majority of acceptable upper limit of pork freshness (TVC value 7.0 log CFU/g) after
their TPC after 18 days. Additionally, coated vegetables lost only 21.8 % 8 days of storage for rapid microbial growth. In contrast, the coated
of vitamin C, while uncoated vegetables lost 82.5 % of vitamin C after meat slices maintained TVC value at 4.84 log CFU/g after 16 days of
30 days of storage. The slow release of EOs into the packages probably storage due to the high antimicrobial activities of methyl chavicol and
increased antioxidants levels, stimulating the activities of major en other phenolic compounds in TEO.
zymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and perox
idase (POD) at the end of storage. Overall, HPEO–CSNPs exhibited 5.3. Fish products
strong acceptability for bell pepper during 24 days of storage (Table 5)
[23]. Cherry (Prunus avium L.), a highly perishable fruit with a limited Fresh fish, with its abundant free amino acids, elevated post–mortem
shelf life of only 7–14 days in conventional cold storage. Arabpoor et al. pH, high moisture content, and the presence of trimethylamine oxide
[1] coated cherry fruits with a thin layer of Eryngium campestre essential (TMAO), is inherently prone to rapid spoilage, fostering the growth and
oil (ECEO) encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles (CHNPs) and observed metabolism of different bacterial strains in fish–based products. Various
their physicochemical properties and microbial growth during 21 days innovative approaches are implemented to suppress or delay the
of storage at 4 ◦ C. The study found that the CHNP–ECEO matrix reduced contamination and growth of microorganisms for improving the shelf
weight loss and retained firmness by mitigating moisture release. The life of fish products. Packaging of fish products with essential oil–loaded
major phenolic compounds of ECEO, such as thymol, nanoparticles significantly improves their quality and increases
beta–sesquiphellandrene, isophytol, and stigmasterol, increased anti shelf–life, as outlined in Table 5. In a study performed by Liu et al. [27],
oxidant activities of the fruits and retained the highest TPC at 50.21 ± an active nanocomposite film based on pectin, modified with ovalbumin
1.07 μg/mL gallic acid during 21 days of storage. Microbial analysis (OVA)/chitosan (CS) nanoparticles encapsulated with gallic acid (9GA),
revealed that the phenolic compounds of ECEO damaged bacterial was fabricated to extend the shelf life of salmon fish fillets. The addition
cytoplasmic membrane, generated intracellular ATP, coagulated cell of GA–loaded OVA/CS nanoparticles significantly increased the film's
components, and disrupted the proton motive force (PMF), causing total color difference at 76.72, protecting against the transmission of UV
metabolic dysfunction and microbial cell death. These studies collec light, thereby reducing lipid oxidation and nutritional degradation in
tively suggest that EOs–loaded nanoparticles can be effectively used to fish fillets sensitive to radiation. After 12 days of refrigerated storage,
maintain the quality and increase the shelf life of fresh fruits and the total volatile base nitrogen (TVB–N) value of the control group
vegetables. significantly increased from 17.7 mg/100 g to 46.7 mg/100 g, while the
pectin–coated fish containing GA–loaded OVA/CS group showed a
5.2. Meat products minimum TVB–N value of 35.9 mg/100 g. Additionally, the bactericidal
activity of GA–loaded OVA/CS–based coating group was confirmed by
Fresh meat and meat products are highly prone to spoilage during maintaining the usual pH of fish fillets at 6.34, while the control group
storage, with rapid microbial proliferation, lipid oxidative degradation, had pH of 6.58. This was mainly due to the generation of ammo
and color deterioration diminishing the quality of stored products. nia–based compounds through enzymatic or microbial autolysis of the
Consequently, inhibiting microbial growth or lipid oxidation by fish protein, effectively preserved in salmon fillets coated with the gallic
employing plant essential oil–loaded bioactive coating on the surface of acid microcapsules-loaded pectin biopolymer composites. Moreover, the
meat products is a promising approach to maintaining quality and safety selected coating group surprisingly inhibited the growth of two ammo
during long–term storage. Essential oils are regarded as natural nia–producing bacteria named Morganella morganii and E. coli,
13
M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
Table 5
Conjugation of essential oil with various biopolymeric nanocomposites and their application on food processing and packaging.
Application sites Applied essential oils Others nanoparticles Potentiality on targeted products References
Others applications
Milk Gum essential oil (GEO) Polypropylene, silica NPs Showed antimicrobial activity against several bacteria including [28]
S. aureus, Salmonella enterica, E. coli, and L. monocytogenes during 35 days
storage on milk.
Cheese Oregano essential oil konjac glucomannan/ Maintained usual cheese color, suppressed lipid & protein oxidations, [3]
chitosan reduced the unexpected hardness of cheese compared to the control
group.
Brown bread Clove essential oil Poly(hydroxybutyrate) Performed potential bactericidal activities against Escherichia coli, [88]
S. aureus and Aspergillus niger, extended the shelf life of bread up to 10
days compared to commercially used synthetic polythene films.
Vacuum–packed Garlic essential oil (GEO) Chitosan, whey protein Nano–encapsulated GEO significantly inhibited lipid oxidation and the [29]
sausages proliferation of major spoilage bacteria by maintaining the peroxide
value at 0.37 meq/kg lipid, TBARs value at 0.47 mg MDA/kg and aerobic
plate count at 3.69 log CFU/g on 50 days of refrigerated storage.
White chocolate Cinnamon essential oil (CEO) … Only 0.1 % (w/w) of CEO increased its antioxidant activity by two folds [30]
processing without affecting the organoleptic quality (hardness, melting properties
and colors) of products.
Tomato juice Rosemary essential oil (REO) β–Cyclodextrin Increased antimicrobial activity and thermal stability during juice [31]
processing pasteurization.
14
M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
effectively increasing the shelf life of salmon fillets by 3 days compared bacterial cells, penetrated the cell membrane, and damaged their cell
to the control fish group. Furthermore, another study by Tang et al. [86] bodies. Further, white chocolate is another popular food product that is
developed an ammonia–responsive biopolymeric smart film-based on widely produced on an industrial scale, but it becomes unhealthy
cobalt metal–organic framework (Co–MOF) nanosheets encapsulated in sometimes due to its low antioxidant activity. Enrichment of white
carboxymethyl cellulose to evaluate the real–time freshness of fish. As chocolate with a certain amount of essential oil may significantly in
the shrimp storage time increased, volatile nitrogen accumulation crease its antioxidant power. In such a study conducted by Muhammad
increased, and the cobalt–loaded cellulose film altered its color from et al. [30], cinnamon essential oil (CEO) was incorporated into white
pale pink at initial time to brownish black after 24 h of storage, easily chocolate at a level of 0.1 % (w/w) and found two–fold increase of
indicating the spoilage of shrimp. In addition, its color–changing func antioxidant activity compared to the control samples. This increase was
tions, the colorimetric film also inhibited the growth of E. coli and due to the presence of major natural antioxidants in CEO, including
S. aureus by 99.6 % and 99.3 %, respectively. Therefore, CMC/Co–MOF limonene, linalool, 4–terpineol, and cinnamyl acetate. Moreover, no
biopolymer composite holds promise for intelligent food packaging. remarkable effects on the organoleptic qualities (hardness, melting
properties, and colors) of the products were seen due to the addition of
5.4. Other applications CEO, but slight changes in the flow behavior of the white chocolate were
noticed due to the particle–particle interaction of the ingredients created
Milk and milk products are highly vulnerable to microbial contam by incorporating essential oil [90].
ination at various stages, from production and processing to storage. The
rich nutrient contents of milk products may allow the proliferation of 6. Conclusion
various pathogenic bacteria like S. aureus, Bacillus cereus,
L. monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and so on. Packaging milk products Packaging plays a pivotal role in the food industry, serving as a
with films containing essential oils effectively prevents pathogen growth critical element in reducing food waste while enhancing the quality and
in milk due to the bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal, parasiticidal, shelf life of perishable food products. The modification of biodegradable
analgesic, and anti–inflammatory properties of essential oils (Table 5). polymer–based nanocomposite films with essential oil–based nano
In a study by Zhang et al. [3], oregano essential oil–loaded particles provides an extra benefit as they contain various bioactive
β–cyclodextrin embedded with konjac glucomannan/chitosan bilayer phenolic compounds that help to destroy microbial cells and suppress
biopolymer films (KEA/CS) were prepared to prevent the growth of lipid oxidations. However, the application of essential oils in bio
E. coli and S. aureus on cheese. The cheese packaged with KEA/CS film polymeric nanocomposite films has some limitations because most of the
containing 15 wt% β–CD@OEO significantly increased the zone of in bioactive compounds in EOs are highly volatile. Accordingly, it's urgent
hibition to 12.67 mm against E. coli and 11.33 mm against S. aureus. In to encapsulate EOs prior to their incorporation into nanocomposite
contrast, the zone of inhibition for the same bacteria was lower than 10 films. The combination of EOs with various food–grade, eco–friendly
mm in the cheese products packaged with only KEA/CS film, high biopolymers, like chitosan, starch, gelatin, pullulan, WPI, gums, and
lighting the effectiveness of OEO–loaded microcapsules in the bio others, is crucial. This combination facilitates suitable crosslinking
polymeric films. Beyond their functional capabilities, the OEO–loaded during film–forming processes, regulating the release of EOs from films,
composite films also showed excellent mechanical and barrier properties reducing film permeability as well as increasing the thermal and me
against environmental stress. Moreover, Ellahi et al. [28] designed chanical properties of nanocomposite films. This review not only pro
edible film containing gum essential oil (GEO), polypropylene polymer, vides comprehensive insights into various encapsulation techniques for
and silica nanoparticles and investigated the effectiveness of GEO essential oils but also delves into commonly applied biodegradable
against several bacteria, including S. aureus, Salmonella enterica, E. coli, polymers in EOs–loaded nanocomposites, and their synergistic functions
and L. monocytogenes during 35 days of storage in milk. They found that with EOs in films. Especially, the major contributions of this review
nanocomposite films exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity against extend to discussions about the key characteristics of EOs, serving as
Salmonella enterica, while its effectiveness against L. monocytogenes was enhancers in edible films, stabilizers in Pickering emulsions, and their
the least. The antimicrobial activity of GEO is mainly due to the major potential roles as antioxidants and antimicrobials. Besides, the wide
constituents of α–pinene (92.08 %) and other compounds, including spread applications of essential oil–loaded nanoparticles in various food
ß–pinene, sabinene, and camphene, which are responsible for bacterial packaging areas, including fruits, vegetables, meats, fishes, dairy, and
inhibition [87]. Besides dairy-based applications, essential oil–loaded other food processing sites, are meticulously described. Despite the
nanocomposite films are widely applied in other industrial purposes. For promising attributes of plant–extracted essential oils in food packaging,
instance, a study by Mittal et al. [88] produced a poly(hydroxybutyrate) there is a limited focus on their application in specific processing in
(PHB)–based active biodegradable film encapsulated with nano–silica dustries like biscuits, bakery, chocolate, and other confectioneries.
and clove essential oil as a substitute of commercial synthetic polythene Therefore, more attention of the researcher is required to extend the
packaging to extend the shelf life of brown bread. The PHB film, application of EOs–based biopolymers in different food processing.
composed of 30 % CEO & 1 % nano–silica, demonstrated potent Consequently, further research and explorations of new essential oils
bactericidal activities against commonly available foodborne pathogens, derived from diverse plants and herbs should be conducted to maximize
including E. coli, S. aureus, and Aspergillus niger, extending the shelf life the utilization of naturally occurring bioactive constituents as a substi
of bread up to 10 days compared to commercially used synthetic poly tute of using synthetic and hazardous antioxidant and antimicrobial
thene films. Esmaeili et al. [29] formulated chitosan (CH) and whey reagents in food packaging.
protein (WP) films incorporated with encapsulated garlic essential oil
(GEO, 2 % v/v) to preserve the quality of vacuum–packed sausages CRediT authorship contribution statement
during 50 days of refrigerated storage. The active films containing GEO
significantly inhibited lipid oxidation and the proliferation of major Md Alomgir Hossen: Writing – original draft, Data curation,
spoilage bacteria by maintaining the peroxide value at 0.37 meq/kg Conceptualization, Formal analysis. Islam Md Shimul: Data curation,
lipid, TBARs value at 0.47 mg MDA/kg, and aerobic plate count (APC) at Writing – review & editing. Dur E. Sameen: Data curation. Zainab
3.69 log CFU/g on 50 days storage. The antioxidant activity of GEO was Rasheed: Visualization. Jianwu Dai: Visualization. Suqing Li: Data
attributed to the chain–breaking activity of sulfur compounds present as curation. Wen Qin: Conceptualization. Wuxia Tang: Visualization.
its main compounds [89]. Moreover, nano–liposomal encapsulation of Mingrui Chen: Data curation, Writing – review & editing. Yaowen Liu:
GEO ensured the size of NGEO nanoparticles within 100 nm and Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition,
increased their surface–to–volume ratio that effectively interacted with Conceptualization.
15
M.A. Hossen et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 265 (2024) 130765
Declaration of competing interest [15] T. Ahad, A. Gull, F.A. Masoodi, A. Gani, J. Nissar, T.A. Ganaie, L. Masoodi,
Protein and polysaccharide based encapsulation of ginger oleoresin: impact of
wall materials on powder stability, release rate and antimicrobial characteristics,
The authors declare no competing financial interest. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 240 (2023) 124331, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijbiomac.2023.124331.
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