Unit 8 Philosophies of Education

Module 8 Various Philosophies of Education

Introduction

In this module, you will get acquainted with the various

educational philosophies. Before we will go advance, you may
start asking yourself, what is educational philosophy or
philosophy of education? Broadly speaking, philosophy of
education is a statement (or set of statements) that identifies
and clarifies the beliefs, values and understandings of an
individual or group with respect to education. You can think of
it as a more-or-less organized body of knowledge and opinion
on education, both as it is conceptualized and as it is practiced
(https://www.tsc.nsw.edu.au/tscnews/educational-philosophy-what-is-it-all-about).
Talking of educational philosophy in the context of the teachers, one can think that
the teacher’s beliefs and opinions about education have great influence to her/his
decisions in terms of identifying instructional objectives, selecting the most matters
learning content and determining what teaching strategies to be used. Further,
educational philosophies serve as guiding principles of the teachers in performing
their roles as teachers as well as their expectation to their students as to how they
perform their role as learners. These are the gripping reasons why you, aspirant
educators have to be familiar with the most influential philosophies in the field of
education.

This module will help you recognize the views of the major educational
philosophies in the three philosophical compelling questions in the field of education,
particularly in the teaching-learning process: why teach, what to teach and how to

Learning Objectives

In this module, you are expected to:

1. explain the major educational philosophies of education.

2. determine which of educational philosophies are learner- centered and
subject-centered.
3. examine the major contribution of each educational philosophy in the
educational or classroom policies and/or practices.
4. formulate personal educational/teaching philosophy statement.

Learning Contents

Educational Philosophies

Topic 1: Essentialism

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 Essentialism, in its most stripped down meaning refers to the belief that
people and/or phenomenon have an underlying and unchanging 'essence'. As an
educational philosophy it advocates the teaching basic competencies (knowledge,
skills and attitudes). Essentialist educators focus on transmitting a series of
progressively difficult topics and promotion of students to the next level or grade.
Subjects are focused on the historical context of the material world and culture, and
move sequentially to give a solid understanding of the present day. It believes that
education was not supposed to change society but to preserve it. Supporters’ of
essentialism are of the view that the subject matter should be the center of the
curriculum. A vital part of the classroom is the teacher. The whole classroom’s
educational environment is centered on the teacher, so it is the teacher who is
responsible for the student’s mental and intellectual growth as well as directing their
future’s in the right direction. Hence teachers in this philosophy are considered the
authority of knowledge. They play a major role in the development of a students’
mind and body to become better human beings.

Why teach

The focus of teaching or education for the essentialists is to: acquire basic
knowledge, skills and values and to transmit the traditional moral values and
intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens.

What to teach

Essentialism tries to instill all students with the most basic knowledge, skills,
and character development. Essentialists believe that teachers should teach
traditional moral values and virtues.
Basic or essential knowledge to be taught to students include reading,
writing, math, science, history, foreign language, music, and technology. The study
material of the students of the elementary schools must concentrate upon the basic
skills, and as for the secondary school, the curriculum shall concentrate upon that
particular discipline that student is going for.

How to teach

Essentialists believe in mastery learning. Methods of teaching use are lecture,

memorization, repetition, practice or drill, and assessment.

Topic 2: Perennialism

Perennialism in education is the idea that school curricula should focus on

what is everlasting. You can remember the word 'perennialism' by remembering that
perennial means lasting for many years. Thus, perennialism is focused on things that
have lasted for many years. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in
any era. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings,
and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest
priority in a worthwhile education. The teacher, to the perennialist, is a mental
disciplinarian with highly developed logical skills, capable of teaching logical thinking
and the use of reason to his students. The teacher must have the ability to work with
the natural tendencies of the students toward reason. He must serve as a benevolent

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taskmaster, exercising the minds of the students in order to help them develop their
rational faculties.

Why teach
The overall aim should be students’ exposure to history’s finest thinkers as
models for discovery. The goal of a perennialist education is to teach students to
think rationally and develop minds that can think critically. A perennialist classroom
aims to be a closely organized and well-disciplined environment, which develops in
students a lifelong quest for the truth.

What to teach
As with the essentialists, perennialists are educationally conservative in the
requirement of a curriculum focused upon fundamental subject areas: English,
languages (grammar, rhetoric), geography, history, mathematics, natural science,
philosophy, and fine arts. The three R’s, which always signified the formal disciplines,
are the essence of liberal or general education. The loftiest accomplishments of
humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature and art, the laws or
principles of science.

How to teach
Minimally-directed discussions through the Socratic method in order to
develop a historically oriented understanding of concepts. Perennialists disapprove of
teachers requiring students to absorb massive amounts of disconnected information.
A skilled teacher would keep discussions on topic and correct errors in reasoning, but
it would be the class, not the teacher, who would reach the conclusions. While not
directing or leading the class to a conclusion, the teacher may work to accurately
formulate problems within the scope of the texts being studied, Perennialism,
typically considered to be teacher-centered.

Topic 3: Progressivism

Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on
the content or the teacher. John Dewey, the foremost proponent of progressivism
believed that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through
experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning
of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools,
rather than authority. It advocates that Learning is rooted in the questions of
learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive.

Why teach:
To develop learners into becoming enlightened and intelligent citizens of a
democratic society
To teach learners so they may live life fully NOW.

What to teach

Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions; need-based and
relevant curriculum - curriculum that respond to students’ need and relates to
students’ lives and experiences.

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How to teach
The progressive education philosophy says that educators should teach
children how to think rather than relying on rote memorization. The scientific method
is used so that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. It
advocates the use of experiential teaching like experimentation, problem-based
learning or hands-on projects that allow students to learn by actively engaging in
activities that put their knowledge to use

Topic 4: Constructivism

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting

on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in.
Understanding is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge and new events.
Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models,” which we use to make
sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our
mental models to accommodate new experiences.

Principles of Constructivism: Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate or

passively absorbed; learning is an active process; all knowledge is socially
constructed; all knowledge is personal; learning exists in the mind.

Why teach
Honebein (1996) summarizes the seven pedagogical goals of constructivist learning
environments:

1) To provide experience with the knowledge construction process (students

determine how they will learn).

2) To provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives (evaluation of

alternative solutions).

3) To embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks).

4) To encourage ownership and a voice in the learning process (student centered

learning).

5) To embed learning in social experience (collaboration).

6) To encourage the use of multiple modes of representation, (video, audio text,

etc.)

7) To encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection,

metacognition).

What to teach
Teach students how to learn

How to teach
Constructivism modifies the role of the teachers, so that they help students to
construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist

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teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities
with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences,
and pool and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment.

Topic 5: Existentialism

Existentialism in education is a teaching and learning philosophy that focuses on the

student’s freedom and agency to choose their future. Existentialist educators believe
there is no god or higher power guiding their students. Thus, they encourage all
students to exercise personal agency and create their own meaning for life.

One of the themes of this educational philosophy is the famous phrase of Jean Paul
Sartre’s Existence precedes Essence. Essence: who we are, our identities;
Existence: the fact that we are alive, right now. Existentialists believe we have to
choose for ourselves who or what we will become. Existentialist would advise: “Stop
searching for the purpose of life!”; “You must create purpose for yourself.”

Why teach
The aims of teaching under existentialism are: to help students understand
and appreciate themselves as unique individual who accept complete responsibility
for their thoughts, feelings and action; to help students define their own essence by
exposing them to various paths -education of the whole person.

What to teach
The subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal
choice. Students are given a wide variety of options from which they to choose -
tremendous emphasis is given to Humanities to provide students with vicarious
experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression -
vocational education is regarded more -encourage creativity and imagination

How to teach
Methods of teaching under existentialism are focus on individual - learning is self-
paced, self-directed. Great deal of individual contact with the teacher. Employ values
clarification strategy.

Topic 6: Behaviorism

Behaviorism believes that people learn behaviors through rewards (reinforcements)

and punishments. By carefully shaping desirable behavior, morality and information
is learned.

Why teach

Behaviorism as philosophy of education and theory of learning believes that the aim
of teaching is to shape desirable behaviors and conducts of the learners.

What to teach

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Behaviorism has no prescribed subjects or curriculum content to be taught to
learners. However, this philosophy considers that socially desirable and acceptable
behaviors can be conditioned and shape to the learners.

How to teach

There are no particular and established teaching methods advocated by the

philosophy of behaviorism. Behaviorism’s primarily concern is the use of the
behavioral principles to shape and manage students’ classroom behavior.
Behaviorism believes that people learn behaviors through rewards and punishments.
Hence, reinforcement (rewards) is meant to increase a good behavior while
punishment is meant to reduce or eliminate bad behavior.

The following are some suggestions how behaviorism applies to the

classroom to manage students’ behavior:

Compliment Good Behavior

The simplest way in which to apply positive reinforcement is to praise a

student when she behaves well or successfully completes a task. You could employ a
system of giving gold stars that result in a small prize when enough have been
earned. Take advantage of the effectiveness of simple statements of praise. When
offering praise, however, opt for a specific statement such as, "you really showed
mature insight right there" as opposed to a vague statement such as "nice work."
The fact is that students can sense when praise is generic or insincere. Reserve such
comments for when you really mean them, so your students won't take them as
empty words.

Support Praise With Evidence

Saying nice things to your students will work fine for a while, but they might
stop believing you unless you can show them exactly why their behavior warrants
praise in the first place. Whenever possible, show them the proof: point out the
specific act and explain why it was so important. Another way to provide concrete
examples of good behavior is to have them keep their work in portfolios for you to
review regularly. The routine of reviewing keeps you from appearing as though
you've gone out of your way to issue some praise, and having their work right in
front of you gives you the opportunity to cite specific, concrete examples of their
accomplishments.

Utilize Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement isn't punishment. Rather, it's when reward good

behavior by taking away something your students see as negative. For example,
your class clown always makes inappropriate comments during health lessons and
disrupts the class. He also really doesn't like writing book reports because the writing
is boring. You could offer to let him do his book report another way, perhaps as a
diorama, on the condition he behaves appropriately during health lessons. By
removing something he sees as negative, you've reinforced a separate, positive
behavior.

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Apply Unpleasant Consequences When Necessary

Sometimes punishment is necessary to discourage undesirable behavior, but

you must be careful not to go too far and embarrass your students. And just as there
are positive and negative reinforcement for good behavior, two methods are
appropriate for applying punishment. Presentation punishment is the type we are
most familiar with: a student misbehaves and you act by adding a punishment like a
detention or time-out. Removal punishment is similar to negative reinforcement: you
remove something the students see as good because they have behaved badly. For
example, if they refuse to stop encouraging your class clown's inappropriate
comments, you could threaten to cancel an upcoming field trip, or an upcoming class
party

Topic 7: Linguistic Philosophy

Linguistics is the scientific study of language – the structure, meaning,

development, how humans process and interpret language. Philosophy is the
academic discipline that applies logic and reason to answer questions about human
nature, life, ethics and knowledge. Linguistic Philosophy in simple terms is the
application of the philosophy of science to linguistics. This discipline believes that it is
important to concentrate on language as the very method and matter core of the
discipline of philosophy.

Why teach
The main focus of teaching language should be to develop the
communication skills of the learners. The expected end product of every instruction
are the learners who possess communicative competence.

What to teach
The communication skills and the practical uses of language are core
contents of language instruction. Students must learn the macro skills: listening,
speaking, reading, writing and watching. They must learn the communicative
competence. Communicative competence represents the ability to use language
correctly to communicate appropriately and effectively in a variety of social
situations. Currently, the communicative competence model is constructed of four
competence areas: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic . Two of them
focus on the functional aspect of communication, and the other two reflect the use
of the linguistic system.

Linguistic and Sociolinguistic

The linguistic competence deals with grammar. It includes vocabulary,
spelling, punctuation, and pronunciation. Students have to know rules that govern
sentence structure, word formation, tenses, sound interactions, word and phrase
meanings, and collocations. In other words, syntax, morphology, semantics,
phonology, and phonetics are all subjects of interest to the linguistic competence
area. Students have to be moving towards mastery of each one of them to construct
grammatically correct sentences.
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 The sociolinguistic competence is concerned with culture and social rules that
govern appropriate language use. For instance, this includes knowing in what setting
we need to be more formal, how we express politeness, how we address people
correctly, how we treat certain topics, any taboos, and what terms are politically
correct. Addressing such area tells us how to use language and how to respond in a
conversation appropriately rather than just grammatically correct. Mastering this
competence reveals a more advanced level of language fluency.

Discourse and Strategic

The discourse competence is our knowledge of what patterns of organization
and cohesive devices we can use to connect sentences. We organize words, phrases,
and sentences and produce and comprehend conversations, articles, messages, and
literature. We can speak, write, read, and listen to information of various types.

We know how to build sentences, how to use them, and how to connect
them in a communication setting. Strategic competence suggests that we can also
overcome language gaps and modify messages with regard to audience and
purpose; it shows we are fluent and effective. We know how to repair and sustain
communication in case of communication breakdowns and how to keep the
communication channel open. We can paraphrase, use gestures, or explain
unfamiliar words; we can ask for clarification, repetition, and slower speech.

Three Ways how communication takes place that students have to learn
Students must learn the three ways wherein the communication takes place.

a. Verbal way of communication -the content of our message, the choice and
arrangement of words are convey through oral or written.
b. Nonverbal – the message send through body language.
c. Paraverbal – this refer to how we say what we say which include the tone,
pacing and volume of our voices.

The following should be taught to learners:

 use of language that is correct, precise, grammatical, coherent, accurate.

 expand their vocabularies
 communicate clearly
 the verbal and non-verbal barriers of communication
 multilingualism

How to teach
For the students to learn how to use language in communicating with others,
teach them through experiential way. The teachers have to provide a balance of
grammar-structure and communicative task-based learning activities so that learners
could learn to communicate clearly with correct and coherent use of language.
Interaction and dialogue among learners must be extensively promoted and be
facilitated in the classroom so that better understanding and exchange of words or
ideas takes place.

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Lesson 8: Formulating My philosophy of education
Philosophy of education is the strength of any efficient educator. It is the
totality of the essential principles, the ways of thinking and the beliefs that provide
the foundation and the framework on which teachers define, delineate, and justify
their teaching agendas, their curriculum preferences, their pedagogical styles, their
classroom organizational structures.

Specifically, philosophy of teaching reflects the beliefs of the teacher about

teaching and learning. This encompasses the views of the teacher on the learner, the
truth or good ones and hence ought to be taught to learners and the strategies on
how to deliver instruction.

As explained by Cox (2020) a teaching (philosophy) statement is a purposeful

and reflective essay about the author’s teaching beliefs and practices. Ohio State
University's Center for the Advancement of Teaching further explains that a teaching
philosophy statement is important because a clear philosophy of teaching can lead to
a change in teaching behavior and foster professional and personal growth.

Vanderbilt University explains:

"A teaching (philosophy) statement is a purposeful and reflective essay about

the author’s teaching beliefs and practices. It is an individual narrative that includes
not only one’s beliefs about the teaching and learning process but also concrete
examples of the ways in which he or she enacts these beliefs in the classroom."

Examples of Teaching Philosophy Statements

Sample 1
This passage is an example of a strong statement of teaching philosophy
because it puts students where they belong in education: at the front and center of a
teacher's focus. An author who writes such as a statement is likely to continuously
examine and verify this philosophy by always ensuring that student needs are the
primary focus of all lessons and schoolwork.

"My philosophy of education is that all children are unique and must have a
stimulating educational environment where they can grow physically, mentally,
emotionally, and socially. It is my desire to create this type of atmosphere where
students can meet their full potential. I will provide a safe environment where
students are invited to share their ideas and take risks.

"I believe that there are five essential elements that are conducive to
learning. (1) The teacher's role is to act as a guide. (2) Students must have access to
hands-on activities. (3) Students should be able to have choices and let their
curiosity direct their learning. (4) Students need the opportunity to practice skills in a
safe environment. (5) Technology must be incorporated into the school day."

Sample 2
The following statement is a good example of a teaching philosophy because
the author emphasizes that all classrooms, and indeed all students, are unique and

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have specific learning needs and styles. A teacher with such a philosophy is likely to
ensure that she spends time helping each student achieve her highest potential.

"I believe that all children are unique and have something special that they
can bring to their own education. I will assist my students to express themselves and
accept themselves for who they are, as well embrace the differences of others.

"Every classroom has its own unique community; my role as the teacher will
be to assist each child in developing their own potential and learning styles. I will
present a curriculum that will incorporate each different learning style, as well as
make the content relevant to the students' lives. I will incorporate hands-on learning,
cooperative learning, projects, themes, and individual work that engage and activate
students learning."

Sample 3
This statement provides a solid example because the author emphasizes the
moral objective of teaching: that she will hold each student to the highest
expectations and ensure that each one is diligent in her studies. Implied in this
statement is that the teacher will not give up on even a single recalcitrant student.

"I believe that a teacher is morally obligated to enter the classroom with only
the highest of expectations for each and every one of her students. Thus, the
teacher maximizes the positive benefits that naturally come along with any self-
fulfilling prophecy. With dedication, perseverance, and hard work, her students will
rise to the occasion."

"I aim to bring an open mind, a positive attitude, and high expectations to
the classroom each day. I believe that I owe it to my students, as well as the
community, to bring consistency, diligence, and warmth to my job in the hope that I
can ultimately inspire and encourage such traits in the children as well."

Sample 4
The following statement takes a slightly different tack: Classrooms should be
warm and caring communities. Unlike the previous statements, this one minimizes
the individuality of students and emphasizes that, essentially, it take a village to
foster truly community-based learning. All teaching strategies then, such as morning
meetings and community problem solving, follow this philosophy.

"I believe that a classroom should be a safe, caring community where

children are free to speak their mind and blossom and grow. I will use strategies to
ensure our classroom community will flourish, like the morning meeting, positive vs.
negative discipline, classroom jobs, and problem-solving skills.

"Teaching is a process of learning from your students, colleagues, parents,

and the community. This is a lifelong process where you learn new strategies, new
ideas, and new philosophies. Over time, my educational philosophy may change, and
that's okay. That just means that I have grown and learned new things."

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 Components of a Teaching Philosophy Statement
A teaching philosophy statement should include an introduction, body, and
conclusion—just as you would expect of your students if they were writing a paper.
But there are specific components that you need to include in any such statement:

Introduction: This should be your thesis statement where you discuss your
general belief about education (such as: "I believe all students have a right to learn")
as well as your ideals in relation to teaching.

Body: In this part of the statement, discuss what you see as the ideal
classroom environment and how it makes you a better teacher, addresses student
needs, and facilitates parent/child interactions. Discuss how you would facilitate age-
appropriate learning, and how you involve students in the assessment process.
Explain how you would put your educational ideals into practice.

Layout specifically what you hope your teaching will help students to
accomplish. Be specific by detailing description of an innovative or interesting
teaching strategy you have used. Doing so, helps your reader understand how your
teaching philosophy would play out in the classroom.

Conclusion: In this section, talk about your goals as a teacher, how you have
been able to meet them in the past, and how you can build on these to meet future
challenges. Focus on your personal approach to pedagogy and classroom
management, as well as what makes you unique as an educator, and how you wish
to advance your career to further support education.

Explain where your teaching philosophy originated—for example, from your

experiences as an undergraduate, from a faculty mentor you worked with during
your teacher-training program, or perhaps from books or articles on teaching that
had a particular influence on you.

Formatting Your Statement

Some general formatting suggestions (Ohio State University Center for the
Advancement of Teaching states):

Statement Format

There is no required content or set format. There is no right or wrong way to

write a philosophy statement, which is why it is so challenging for most people to
write one. You may decide to write in prose, use famous quotes, create visuals, use
a question/answer format, etc.

There are, however, some general rules to follow when writing a teaching
philosophy statement:

Keep it brief. The statement should be no more than one to two pages.
Use present tense, and write the statement in the first person, as the
previous examples illustrate.

Avoid jargon. Use common, everyday language, not technical terms.

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 Create a "vivid portrait" that includes "strategies and methods ... (to help)
your reader take a mental 'peek' into your classroom.

Additionally, make sure you talk about "your experiences and your beliefs"
and ensure your statement is original and truly describes the methods and
philosophy you would employ in teaching,

As future teachers, though you are not yet in the actual field of teaching, can
already begin to communicate your beliefs on teaching-learning by formulating your
own personal teaching philosophy. You have to remember, however that your
formulated teaching philosophy should be continuously examined and verified as you
grow in the teaching profession.

Now, that teaching philosophy statement had been introduced and explained
to you, oriented with its components and the general rules of writing it, and you
were also given samples, it’s your turn to formulate your own.

Learning Activities

Activity 1:
List one (1) major contribution of each educational philosophy to the
educational/classroom policies and practices in the country.

Activity 2:
Determine which of the discussed educational philosophies are learner-centered or
subject centered.

Activity 3:
Formulate your philosophy of teaching. Be guided by including your beliefs/views
about the following:
• The learner and the educated person
• The true and good and therefore must be taught
• How a learner must be taught in order to come close to the truth

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

1. Online (synchronous and synchronous)

 FB group, group chat, Edmodo .
2. Remote (asynchronous)
 module, writing activities

Assessment Task

Fill out the following matrix to summarize the educational philosophies discussed in
this module.

Educational Why What to How to Role of Role of the

Philosophies teach teach teach the learner
teacher
1. Essentialism

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2. Perenialism
3. Progressivism
4. Constructivism
5. Existentialism
6. Behaviorism
7.Linguistic Philosophy

Answer key:

Activity 1

Activity 2 Answers may vary

Activity 3

Assessment Tasks: Answers may vary

SUMMARY
Educational Philosophies: Essentialism, in its most stripped down meaning refers to
the belief that people and/or phenomenon have an underlying and unchanging
'essence'. As an educational philosophy it advocates the teaching basic competencies
(knowledge, skills and attitudes). Perennialism in education is the idea that school
curricula should focus on what is everlasting. You can remember the word
'perennialism' by remembering that perennial means lasting for many years.
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on
the content or the teacher. Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the
premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding
of the world we live in. Existentialism in education is a teaching and learning
philosophy that focuses on the student’s freedom and agency to choose their future.
Behaviorism believes that people learn behaviors through rewards (reinforcements)
and punishments. Linguistics is the scientific study of language – the structure,
meaning, development, how humans process and interpret language. Philosophy of
education is the strength of any efficient educator. It is the totality of the essential
principles, the ways of thinking and the beliefs that provide the foundation and the
framework on which teachers define, delineate, and justify their teaching agendas,
their curriculum preferences, their pedagogical styles, their classroom organizational
structures.
References

Behaviorism: Overview & Practical Teaching Examples. (2014, August 15). Retrieved
from https://study.com/academy/lesson/behaviorism-overview-practical-teaching-
examples.html.

Communicative Competence: Definition & Model. (2019, January 14). Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/communicative-competence-definition-
model.html.

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Cox, Janelle. (2020, March 6). 4 Teaching Philosophy Statement Examples. Retrieved
from https://www.thoughtco.com/teaching-philosophy-examples
2081517http://www.excite.com/education/education/essentialism-in-education

Honebein, P. C. (1996). Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning

environments. Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional
design, 11-24.

Ugwuozor, Felix. (2019). DEVELOPING A PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION:

A REQUISITE GUIDE TO EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES.

https://www.theedadvocate.org/edupedia/content/what-is-essentialism/

https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP4.html

https://education.seattlepi.com/apply-behaviorist-philosophy-classroom-3322.html

http://richardtwine.com/ecofem/essentialism.html

https://www.theedadvocate.org/edupedia/content/what-is-perennialism/

https://www.funderstanding.com/theory/constructivism/
https://helpfulprofessor.com/existentialism-in-education/

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