Math Books

Complied by: www.handakafunda.
com Best of Handa ka funda
INDEX
Divisibility Rules
Factor Theory
Number System Dealing with Factorials
Basic Ideas of Remainders
Cyclicity of remainders
Basic applications of remainder theorem
Remainders Advanced
Number of Trailing Zeros
Determining second last digit
Maxima and Minima in Quadratic and other polynomials

Basics of functions and modifications of graphs
Algebra
Roots of an Equation
Number of Integral solutions
Basics of Time,Speed and Distance

Motion of two bodies in a straight line
Arithmetic Clocks –Fundamental Principles
Dealing with Percentages - 1
Dealing with Percentages – Part 2
Geometry Fundas -1
Geometry
Geometry Fundas -2
Permutation &Combination - Fundamental principles of counting

Permutation &Combination - Distribution of objects
Set Theory - Maximum and minimum values
Modern Maths
Dealing with 4 Sets
Problems based on Grids and Chess Boards
Introduction to Probability
Cubes and Matchstick Problems

Logical Reasoning Games and Tournaments - 1
Games and Tournaments - 2
Tips for easy and fast calculations

Data Interpretation /
Basics of Data Interpretation - Approximation
Data Sufficiency
Introduction to Data Sufficiency
Complied by: www.handakafunda.com Best of Handa ka funda
NUMBER SYSTEMS
Course Details: http://bit.ly/handaCAT13 Use coupon code CATEB11 to get 11% OFF
Divisibility Rules
The concept of ‘divide and conquer’, derived from the Latin phrase ‘Divide et impera’, was put into
use effectively by everyone from Caesar to Napoleon to The British in India. Even Gaddafi tried using
the same but as current events show us – he wasn’t very effective. Dividing rather divisibility rules to
be specific can come in really handy at times in solving problems based on Number Systems.
The standard rules which nearly all of us are very comfortable with are the ones for 2 n and
5n. For these all that one needs to do is look at the last ‘n’ digits of the number. If the last ‘n’ digits of
a number are divisible by 2n or 5n, then the number is divisible by 2n or 5n and vice versa. For details
about other numbers, I suggest that you read on.
Funda 1:
For checking divisibility by ‘p’, which is of the format of 10n – 1, sum of blocks of size ‘n’ needs to be
checked (Blocks should be considered from the least significant digit ie the right side). If the sum is
divisible by p, then the number is divisible by p.
Eg 1.1 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 9
 9 is 101 – 1
 Sum of digits is done 1 at a time = a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = X
 If X is divisible by 9, N is divisible by 9
 Also, N is divisible by all factors of 9. Hence the same test works for 3.
 99 is 102 – 1
 Sum of digits is done 2 at a time = ab + cd + ef + gh = X
 Also, N is divisible by all factors of 99. Hence the same test works for 9, 11 and others.
 999 is 103 – 1
 Sum of digits is done 3 at a time = ab + cde + fgh = X
 Also, N is divisible by all factors of 999. Hence the same test works for 27, 37 and others.
Funda 2:
For checking divisibility by ‘p’, which is of the format of 10n + 1, alternating sum of blocks of size ‘n’
needs to be checked (Blocks should be considered from the least significant digit ie the ri ght side). If
the alternating sum is divisible by p, then the number is divisible by p.
(Alternating Sum: Sum of a given set of numbers with alternating + and – signs. Since we are using it
to just check the divisibility, the order in which + and – signs are used is of no importance.)
 11 is 101 + 1
 Alternating sum of digits is done 1 at a time = a - b + c - d + e - f + g - h = X
 101 is 102 + 1
 Alternating sum of digits is done 2 at a time = ab - cd + ef - gh = X
 1001 is 103 + 1
 Sum of digits is done 3 at a time = ab - cde + fgh = X
 Also, N is divisible by all factors of 1001. Hence the same test works for 7, 11, 13 and others.
Funda 3: Osculator / seed number method
For checking divisibility by ‘p’,
Step 1: Figure out an equation such that
If we have this equation, the osculator / seed number for ‘p’ will be . (-m in case of 10m+1 and
+m in case of 10m – 1)
Step 2: Remove the last digit and multiply it with the seed number.
Step 3: Add the product with the number that is left after removing the last digit.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 2 and 3 till you get to a number which you can easily check that whether or not
it is divisible by p.
Eg: Check whether 131537 is divisible by 19 or not.
 19*1 = 10*2 – 1 (Seed number is +2)


 133 is divisible by 19
 131537 is divisible by 19
I hope that these divisibility rules will enable you to divide and conquer few of the Number Systems
problems that you encounter during your preparation.
Factor Theory
I understand that the title might be a little misleading but at least I could not come up with
something better. So before you end up getting disappointed, let me first list down the topics that I
am going to cover in this particular blogpost:
 Number of factors of a given number

 Number of even factors or odd factors of a given number
 Sum of all factors of a given number
 Sum of all even factors or odd factors of a given number
We know that a number N can be written as a product of its factors as given below
 N = ap x bq x cr …
Here a,b,c… are prime factors of N
& p,q,r … are the powers of the prime factors of N.
In such a case the number of factors of N are given by the formula
 …
The obvious question which arises is, why this formula in particular. It is actually a game of choices
and options available. Let us see how.
Suppose you are going on a camping trip and you have packed all the necessary items. Now you are
wondering how many movie DVDs, music CDs & MP3 players you should take. (Please do not judge
me by the example. I have no experience about camping trips but I guess that is obvious by the
example mentioned). In your collection, you have 5 movie DVDs, 4 music CDs and 2 MP3 players.
Try to answer these questions:
1. How many choices / options do you have for the number of movie DVDs that you can take?
2. How many choices / options do you have for the number of music CDs that you can take?
3. How many choices / options do you have for the number of MP3 players that you can take?
4. Are the answers to all the above questions independent of each other?
Your answers for the above questions should be:
1. 6 (You can take either 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 Movie DVDs. You also have the option of not
taking a movie DVD at all.)
2. 5 (You can take either 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 Music CDs. You also have the option of not taking a
music CD at all.)
3. 3 (You can take either 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 MP3 players. You also have the option of not
taking a MP3 player at all.)
4. Yes. All answers are independent of each other.
So, what is the total number of options / choices do you have while packing for the camping trip?
Answer = 6 x 5 x 3 = 90
If you understood the above example, the number of factors formula should be a piece of cake.
Consider a number N = 25 x 34 x 52
It means that you have: 2,2,2,2,2 && 3,3,3,3 && 5,5
Any combination of the above will make a factor. You have 6 choices for picking up the number of 2s
in a factor, 5 choices for picking up the number of 3s in a factor and 3 choices for picking up the
number of 5s in a factor.
So, the total number of factors = 6 x 5 x 3 = 90.
Now, for finding out the number of even factors consider the camping trip case.
If one of your friends insists that he wants to watch Twilight while on the camping trip and you
should bring the movie DVD because you own a copy. (Once again I will restrain myself and not pass
a judgement on you or your friend or the choice of the movie)
So, in this case the number of choices for picking up the movie DVD has reduced from 6 to 5 because
you HAVE TO bring the Twilight DVD.
So, the total number of choices that you have now is 5 x 5 x 3 = 75
Same logic can be extended to finding out the number of even factors.
Number of even factors = 5 x 5 x 3 = 75 {Because your factor has to contain at least one 2, analogous
to the twilight DVD}
Number of odd factors = 5 x 3 = 15 {In this case, your factor cannot contain any 2s, analogous to not
being allowed to take a movie DVD}
As a matter of fact, if you have the total number of factors and the total number of even factors;
their difference would directly give you the total number of odd factors.
Such logic can be extended to find out the number of factors divisible by a particular number.
Number of factors divisible by 12 = 4 x 4 x 3 = 48 {In this case, your factor will have to contain at least
two 2s and one 3}
We know that a number N can be written as a product of its factors as given below
 N = ap x bq x cr …
Here a,b,c… are prime factors of N
& p,q,r … are the powers of the prime factors of N.
In such a case the sum of factors of N are given by the formula
The logic remains the same in this case also. If you expand the above expression, you will end up
with all the factors.
For N = 25 x 34 x 52
Sum of all factors
Sum of all the even factors
Sum of all the odd factors
Sum of all the factors divisible by 12
I hope that this post was helpful and you will not face any problems in finding out the number of
factors and related stuff.
Dealing with Factorials
We all know what factorials (n!) are. They look friendly and helpful but looks can be deceiving, as
many quant problems have taught us. Probably it is because that Factorials are simple looking
creatures, most students prefer attempting questions based on them rather than on Permutation &
Combination or Probability. I will cover P&C and Probability at a later date but in today’s post I
would like to discuss some fundas related to factorials, which as a matter of fact form the basis of a
large number of P&C and Probability problems.
Some of the factorials that might speed up your calculation are:
0! = 1; 1! = 1; 2! = 2; 3! = 6; 4! = 24; 5! = 120; 6! = 720; 7! = 5040.
Funda 1: Rightmost non-zero digit of n! or R(n!)
R(n!) = Last Digit of [ 2a x R(a!) x R(b!) ]
where n = 5a + b
Eg 1.1: What is the rightmost non-zero digit of 37! ?
 R (37!) = Last Digit of [ 27 x R (7!) x R (2!) ]

 R (37!) = Last Digit of [ 8 x 4 x 2 ] = 4
Eg 1.2: What is the rightmost non-zero digit of 134! ?
 R (134!) = Last Digit of [ 226 x R (26!) x R (4!) ]

 R (134!) = Last Digit of [ 4 x R (26!) x 4 ]
We need to find out R (26!) = Last Digit of [ 25 x R (5!) x R (1!) ] = Last digit of [ 2 x 2 x 1 ] = 4
 R (134!) = Last Digit of [ 4 x 4 x 4 ] = 4
Funda 2: Power of a prime ‘p’ in a factorial (n!)
The biggest power of a prime ‘p’ that divides n! (or in other words, the power of prime ‘p’ in n!) is
given by the sum of quotients obtained by successive division of ‘n’ by p.
Eg 2.1: What is the highest power of 7 that divides 1342!
 [1342 / 7] = 191
 [191 / 7] = 27
 [27 / 7] = 3
 Power of 7 = 191 + 27 + 3 = 221
Eg 2.2: What is the highest power of 6 that divides 134! ?
As 6 is not a prime number, we will divide it into its prime factors. 3 is the bigger prime, so its power
will be the limiting factor. Hence, we need to find out the power of 3 in 134!
 [134/3] = 44
 [44/3] = 14
 [14/3] = 4
 [4/3] = 1
 Power of 3 in 134! = 44 + 14 + 4 + 1 = 63
Eg 2.3: What is the highest power of 9 that divides 134! ?
As 9 is not a prime number, we will divide it into its prime factors. 9 is actually 32. The number of 3s
available is 63, so the number of 9s available will be [63/2] = 31.
Highest power of 9 that divides 134! is 31.
Highest power of 18 and 36 will also be 31. Highest power of 27 will be [63/3] = 21.
Note: To find out the highest power of a composite number, always try and find out which number
(or prime number) will become the limiting factor. Use that to calculate your answer. In most cases
you can just look at a number and say that which one of its prime factors will be the limiting factor. If
it is not obvious, then you may need to find it out for two of the prime factors. The above method can
be used for doing the same.
Funda 3: Number of ending zeroes in a factorial (n!)
Number of zeroes is given by the sum of the quotients obtained by successive division of ‘n’ by 5.
This is actually an extension of Funda 1. Number of ending zeroes is nothing else but the number of
times n! is divisible by 10 or in other words, the highest power of 10 that divides n!. 10 is no t a prime
number and its prime factors are 2 and 5. ‘5’ becomes the limiting factor and leads to the above-
mentioned idea.
Eg 3.1: What is the number of ending zeroes in 134! ?
 [134/5] = 26
 [26/5] = 5
 [5/5] = 1
 Number of ending zeroes = 26 + 5 + 1 = 32
I hope that this gets you started with factorials and you might start singing this song.
Basic Idea of Remainders
Figuring out the last digit is the same as figuring out the remainder of a number when divided by 10,
but I guess you already know that. Figuring out the last two digits is the same as figuring out the
remainder of a number when divided by 100. However, if you wish to figure the remainder when the
divisor is not 10 or 100, I suggest you read on.
Funda 1: Basic idea of remainders can be used to solve complicated problems.
There is nothing special or unique about this idea. At first glance it seems like something really
obvious. But it is its usage that makes it special and helpful in questions related to remainders.
Let us look at couple of examples to see how this can be used effectively. In the first example we will
see the idea that will work in cases of a b and in the second example we will see the idea that will
work in case of
Example 1: Find out the remainder when 2525 is divided by 7.
Example 2: Find out the remainder when is divided by 7.
We know that 43 gives a remainder of 1, when divided by 7.
So, if we have 43k, it will give a remainder of 1 when divided by 7
If we have 43k+1 , it will give a remainder of 4 when divided by 7
If we have 43k+2 , it will give a remainder of 2 when divided by 7.
So, we need to reduce 2627 as 3k or 3k+1 or 3k+2. If we can do that, we will know the answer. So our
task has now been reduced to figuring out
Note: As you can see in solving this example, we have used the concept of negative remainder. In
some cases, using the negative remainder can reduce your calculations significantly. It is
recommended that you practice some questions using negative remainders instead of positive o nes.
Funda 2: While trying to find out the remainder, if the dividend (M) and the divisor (N) have a factor
(k) in common; then
 Cancel out the common factor

 Find out the remainder from the remaining fraction
 Multiply the resulting remainder with the common factor to get the actual remainder
In equation format, this can be written as:
Example: Find out the remainder when 415 is divided by 28.
Funda 3: While trying to find out the remainder, if the divisor can be broken down into smaller co-
prime factors; then
 {HCF (a,b) = 1}
 Let
{Such that ax+by = 1}
Note: If you wish to read more about it and how it happens, I suggest you read about the Chinese
Remainder Theorem.
Example: Find out the remainder when 715 is divided by 15.
 {Such that 3x+5y=1}
 Valid values are x = -3 and y = 2
By using the above fundas, solving remainder problems will get a little easier. But if you are thinking,
that this is all you need to know to solve remainder problems in CAT – I beg to differ. Great
mathematicians like Euler, Fermat & Wilson developed some theorems that come in handy while
solving remainder questions. We will discuss these in my next post.
Cyclicity of Remainders
In this post I would like to discuss some of the really fundamental ideas that can be used to solve
questions based on remainders. If you have just started your preparation for CAT 2012, you might
find this article helpful. On the other hand, if you are looking for some advance stuff, I suggest that
you check out some of my posts from last year on the same topic.
First of all,
What I am trying to say above is that if you divide a^n by d, the remainder can be any value from 0
to d-1.
Not only that, if you keep on increasing the value of ‘n’, you would notice that the remainders are
cyclical in nature. What I am trying to say is that the pattern of remainders would repeat. Let me try
to clarify this with an example:
4^1 divided by 9, leaves a remainder of 4.
4^2 divided by 9, leaves a remainder of 7. {Rem(16/9) = 7}
4^3 divided by 9, leaves a remainder of 1. {Rem (64/9) = 1}
4^(3k+1) leaves a remainder of 4
4^(3k+2) leaves a remainder of 7
4^3k leaves a remainder of 1
As you can see from above that the remainder when 4^n is divided by 9 is cyclical in nature i.e. the
remainders obtained are 4,7,1, 4,7,1, 4,7,1 … and so on. They will always follow the same pattern.
Funda 1: a^n when divided by d, will always give remainders which will have a pattern and will
move in cycles of ‘r’ such that r is less than or equal to d.
With the help of the above idea, you can solve a large number of remainder questions. All you need
to do is to figure out the cycle / pattern in which the remainders are moving, and it will lead you to
the answer.
Let us look at an example to illustrate the above idea.
Eg: What will be the remainder when 4^143 is divided by 9.
From the calculations that I did in the beginning of the post, I know that:
Remainders of 4^n when divided by 9, move in a cycle of 3.
So, I need to express 143 = 3k + x and that would lead to the answer.
I know that 143 = 141 + 2 {141 is divisible by 3}
So, my answer would be the 2nd value in the list, which is 7.
n the questions where you have to find out the remainder of a^n by d, as a rule you can follow this
process:
Step 1: Find out the cycle of remainders when a^n is divided by d and make a list of those values.
Step 2: Find out the cyclicity, say ‘r’
Step 3: Find out the remainder when the power is divided by the cyclicity i.e. Rem[n/r] = p
Step 4: The answer would be the pth value in the list. {If p = 0, it would be the last value in the list}
Funda 2: While trying to find the cycle / pattern of remainders when a^n is divided by d, just
multiply the previous remainder with ‘a’ to get the next value.
If you notice in the example mentioned in the beginning of this post, I have calculated 4^5 and 4^6
and then found out the remainder. As you might have realized by now that it is a long and tedious
process. But the good part is – you can avoid that tedious process by just multiplying the previous
remainder. In that example instead of calculating 4^5 and then dividing by 9, I could have just
multiplied the previous remainder, which was 4 with 4 to get 16, which would have directly given me
a remainder of 7.
Got confused? Well, let us look at a new example.
Eg: Find out the cyclicity of remainders when 3^n is divided by 11.
As you can see that till here there is no problem in calculating the remainders.
{In this case instead of using 3^4 = 81, I took the previous remainder, which was 5 and multiplied it
with 3 to get 15, which lead to my current remainder = 4}
with 3 to get 12, which lead to my current remainder = 1}
with 3 to get my current remainder = 3}
As you might have noticed that the remainder 3 repeated itself and so the cycle / pattern of
remainders as -> 3,9,5,4,1 and the cyclicity as 5.
Let us try and solve a slightly more complicated problem with this idea.
Eg: Find out the remainder when is divided by 7.
Step 1: Find out the cycle / pattern of remainders when 4^n is divided by 7.
Rem [4^1 / 7 ] = 4
Rem [4^2 / 7 ] = 2
Rem [4^3 / 7 ] = 1
So, the cycle/pattern is 4,2,1.
Step 2: The cyclicity is 3.
Step 3: Rem [Power/Cyclicity] = Rem [32^32 / 3] = (-1)^32 = 1
Step 4: The answer is the 1st value in the list, which is 4.
I hope you found this post useful. Suggestions for future posts are more than welcome.
Basic Applications of Remainder Theorem
In my previous post, we discussed the cyclical nature of the remainders when an is divided by d. In
this post, we will see how problems on finding out the remainder can be broken down into s maller
parts.
Funda 1: Remainder of a sum when it is being divided is going to be the same as the sum of the
individual remainders.
Let us look at an example for this case:
Eg: Find out the remainder when (79+80+81) is divided by 7.
If we add it up first, we get the sum as 240 and the remainder as 2 as shown below:
However, it would be easier to find out the individual remainders of 79, 80 & 81; which come out to
be 2, 3 & 4 respectively and adding them up later to get the answer. This process is shown below:
I hope you would agree that the second method is easier. May be the difference in difficulty level is
not highlighted here. Let us look at another idea on the same lines.
Funda 2: Remainder of a product when it is being divided is going to be the same as the product of
the individual remainders.
Let us look at an example for this case:
Eg: Find out the remainder when (79 x 80 x 81) is divided by 7.
If we multiply it first, we get the product as 511920 and the remainder as 3 as shown below:
However, it would be easier to find out the individual remainders of 79, 80 & 81; which come out to
be 2, 3 & 4 respectively and multiply them to get 24, which will eventually lead to the remainder of
3. This process is shown below:
I guess there is no doubt in this question that the second method is easier. To be honest, I would
take more time to just find out the product of (79 x 80 x 81) than to solve the entire question.
That is the reason I recommend breaking down the problem into smaller parts.
Funda 3: Negative Remainders – When the absolute value of the -ive remainder is lesser than the
absolute value of the positive remainder, it is recommended that you consider a multiple greater
than the divisor.
When 7 is divided by 4, the remainder can be considered as 3 or -1.
When 18 is divided by 7, the remainder can be considered as 4 or -3.
When 689 is divided b 23, the remainder can be considered as 22 or -1.
As you can see from above, the calculations would reduce drastically in the third case if you consider
a negative remainder. As a tip, in remainder questions, you should always think of multiples or
powers which can lead to a remainder of 1 or -1.
Till now, the examples I have taken are too simple to be asked in CAT or for that matter any other
MBA entrance exam. Let us look at an example that uses all the above-mentioned ideas and is of a
slightly higher difficulty level.
Eg: Find out the remainder when 83261 is divided by 17.
First of all we need to break down 83261 into smaller parts.
We know that .
It would be easier if consider the remainder as -2 because our calculations would be lesser. So
essentially, our question reduces to:
Now, referring to the tip I gave above, think of a power of 2 that would give a remainder of 1 or -1
from 17.
24 is 16 and would give a remainder of -1 from 17.
We have a 2261 here. We will have to break it down to (2260 x 2) so that we can convert it to a power
of 16. This step is shown below:
I highly recommend that in this question and other questions of this type, you should verify the
answer from Wolfram Alpha.
Hope you found this article useful. I look forward to your suggestions for future posts.
REMAINDERS ADVANCED
In previous posts, we have already discussed how to find out the last two digits and basic ideas of
remainders. However, there are theorems by Euler, Fermat & Wilson that make calculation of
remainders easier. Let’s have a look at them.
Funda 1 – Euler:
Number of numbers which are less than N = and co-prime to it are
If M and N are co-prime ie HCF(M,N) = 1
A very common mistake that students tend to make while using Euler’s Theorem in solving questions
is that they forget M and N have to be co-prime to each other. There is another set of students (like
me in college) who don’t even understand what to do with the theorem or how to use it solving
questions. Let us look at couple of examples in which Euler’s Theorem is used.
Note: is also known as Euler’s Totient Function.
Example 1:
Funda 2 – Fermat:
If ‘p’ is a prime number and ‘a’ and ‘p’ are co-primes
 (ap – a) will be divisible by p.
If you notice, the three statements above are saying the exact same thing but in a different way. It is
important to keep all three in mind because sometimes it becomes a little difficult to analyze which
interpretation of Fermat’s little theorem is to be used.
A simple illustration of this would be:
We can check it by noticing that
Another way that you can remember Fermat’s Little Theorem (I am not joking, that is the official
name – check this) is that it is a special case of Euler’s Theorem where ‘N’ is a prime number.
Because, if ‘N’ is prime then or the Euler’s Totient Function will always be (N-1)
Funda 3: Wilson
Sometimes people find the history behind Wilson’s theorem to be more interesting than the
theorem itself. Actually, it was know to the great Muslim polymath Alhazen approximately seven
and a half centuries before John Wilson was born. Alhazen, being the great scientist that he was,
never bothered to prove it and tried to regulate the floods in river Nile. After being ordered by Al-
Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth ruler of the Fatimid caliphate, to carry out this operation, Alhazen
quickly perceived the impossibility of what he was attempting to do, and retired from engineering.
Fearing for his life, he feigned madnessand was placed under house arrest, during and after which
he devoted himself to his scientific work until his death.
The English mathematician, John Wilson, stated it in the 18th century but he could not prove it
either. Actually Wilson was a student of Edward Waring, who announced the theorem in 1770. None
of them could prove it. Lagrange proved it in 1771. There is evidence that Leibniz was also aware of
the result a century earlier, but he never published it.
I think I will end the history lesson here and continue with the mathematical part.
For a prime number ‘p’
Another related result to the Wilson Theorem is:
Example:
Note: I have checked the related result for primes up to 120 and found it to be valid. I could not find
a proof for it that I could understand. Do note that the key part of the previous sentence is not ‘find
a proof for it’ but ‘that I could understand’. May be one of you can help me out in comments. 
I also recommend that while trying these ideas or any other remainder questions, keep Wolfram
Alpha open.
Number of Trailing Zeros
In this blog post, I would like to cover these two ideas:
 Number of trailing zeroes in an expression

 Number of trailing zeroes in n!
But before I begin, let us first try to understand what exactly are ‘trailing zeroes’. It is nothing else
but the number of zeroes at the end. I do not want to sound pedantic but on many occassions when
you see a question which asks about, “What is the number of zeroes in ___” it is incorrect, because it
should actually say – “What is the number of trailing zeroes?” or “What is the number of ending
zeroes?” It is virtually impossible to predict the exact number of zeroes without actually doing the
calculation and finding out the answer.
Just to clarify, 170130000 has 5 zeroes but 4 trailing / ending zeroes.
In questions based on these ideas, you should assume that the examiner is asking about trailing
zeroes unless specified otherwise.
Number of trailing zeroes in an expression
If we look at a number N, such that
Number of trailing zeroes is the Power of 10 in the expression or in other words, the number of
times N is divisible by 10.
For a number to be divisible by 10, it should be divisible by 2 & 5.
Consider a number N, such that
For the number to have a zero at the end, both a & b should be at least 1.
If you want to figure out the exact number of zeroes, you woul d have to check how many times the
number N is divisible by 10.
When I am dividing N by 10, it will be limited by the powers of 2 or 5, whichever is lesser.
Number of trailing zeroes is going to be the power of 2 or 5, whichever is lesser.
Let us look at an example to further illustrate this idea.
Eg1: What is number of trailing zeroes in 12000?
12000 = 25 x 3 x 53
When I divide it by 10, it would be divisible exactly thrice because I have only three 5s.
In this case, number of 5s has become the limiting factor and so, the power of 5, which is 3 is the
answer.
Tip: The power of 5 will be the limiting factor in most cases of continuous distribution. It will happen
because 5 is less likely to occur than 2.
Eg2: Find out the number of zeroes at the end of N
Looking at the expression, we can say that the power of 5 will be the limiting factor.
All we need to do is to figure out the number of 5s in the expression.
11, 22, 33 , 1717 , 8989,… will not give us any 5s.
55 will give us five 5s.
1010 will give us ten 5s.
1515 will give us fifteen 5s.
And so on.
So, the total number of 5s that I have is

But I have made a mistake in the above calculation.
I have assumed that 2525 will give me twenty-five 5s but that is incorrect.
It is incorrect because 2525 = 550 and will actually give me 50 5s.
Other errors are
5050 will actually give me 100 5s, whereas I have considered only 50 5s.
Considering the above, I have made an error of = 25 + 50 + 75 + 100 = 250 5s.
So the total number of 5s that I have are 1050 + 250 = 1300.
So the number of trailing zeroes at the end of the expression is 1300
Number of trailing zeroes in a factorial (n!)
Number of trailing zeroes in n! = Number of times n! is divisible by 10 = Highest power of 10 which

divides n! = Highest power of 5 in n!
The question can be put in any of the above ways but it can be answered using the simple formula
given below:
{ [x] is the greatest integer function. [4.99] = 4, [4.01] = 4, [- 4.99] = 5, [-4.01] = 5}
The above formula gives us the exact number of 5s in n! because it will take care of all multiples of 5
which are less than n. Not only that it will take care of all multiples of 25, 125, etc. (higher powers of
5).
Tip: Instead of dividing by 25, 125, etc. (higher powers of 5); it would be much faster if you divided by
5 recursively.
Let us use this to solve a few examples:
Eg1: What is the number of trailing zeroes in 23! ?
[23/5 ]= 4. It is less than 5, so we stop here.
The answer is 4.
Eg2: What is the number of trailing zeroes in 123! ?
[123/5] = 24
Now we can either divided 123 by 25 or the result in the above step i.e. 24 by 5.
[24/5 ]= 4. It is less than 5, so we stop here.
The answer is = 24 + 4 = 28
Eg3: What is the number of trailing zeroes in 1123!?
[1123/5] = 224
[224/5] = 44
[44/5] = 8
[8/5]=1. It is less than 5, so we stop here.
The answer is = 224 + 44 + 8 + 1 =277
Eg4: Number of trailing zeroes in n! is 13. n =?
There is no standard formula for such type of questions but they can be solved by a little bit of hit
and trial.
I need to get 13 trailing zeroes which I will definitely get from 65!
But it will have some extra zeroes in the end because of higher powers of 5.
So, I will consider the previous multiple of 5, which in this case is 60.
Trailing zeroes in 60! = [60/5] + [60/25] = 12 + 2 = 14
I got 14 but I want to get 13, so I will consider the previous multiple of 5, which in this case is 55.
Trailing zeroes in 55! = [55/5] + [55/25] = 11 + 2 = 13
So, the valid values of n! are 55!, 56!, 57!, 58!, 59!
Eg5: Number of zeroes in n! is 23. n =?
Trailing zeroes in 100! = [100/5] + [100/25 ] = 20 + 4 = 24 {Too high. Consider previous multiple}
Trailing zeroes in 95! = [95/5] + [95/25] = 19 + 3 = 22 {Too low. Consider next multiple}
As you can see from above, we would end up in a loop.
This will happen because there is no valid value of n for which n! will have 23 zeroes in the end.
Writing the end of the posts is the hardest part for me because I cannot figure out a decent way to
end it. It seems like I am in flow when I am writing this and it gets broken at the end. Read the wiki
page, you will learn something much more important than Math.
Determining the Second Last Digit
Nike caused controversy with its advertising campaign during the 1996 Olympics by using the slogan,
"You Don't Win Silver — You Lose Gold." Nike's use of this slogan drew harsh criticism from many
former Olympic Silver medallists. In a way, it did undermine the importance of the second position
but in Math things are often very different. Figuring out the second last digit is often tougher than
figuring out the last digit. It is unlikely but definitely not impossible that in CAT you get a
straightforward question that asks you to find out the second last digit of a number (abcpqr). It did
happen in CAT 2008. In few cases, you will be able to do it by forming a cycle and observing the
pattern. Those will be the easier cases. Read on if you wish to do the same for the not so easy cases.
The question becomes really simple if the last digit in abcpqr is 0 or 5 because if it 0, second last digit
will be 0 and if it is 5, second last digit will be 2 or 7 (which can be easily figured out by observing the
cyclicity). All the other questions can be divided in two broad categories:
a) Last digit is odd

b) Last digit is even
I recommend that before using any of the concepts given below, you should try and see if a pattern
exists.
Let us consider our number is abcpqr where a,b,c,p,q and r are digits and c is not 0 or 5.
Concept 1: What to do when the last digit is odd?
The second last digit always depends on the last two digits of the number so anything before that
can be easily neglected.
We first convert the number in such a way that the last digit of the base becomes 1. Second last
digit of the number will simply be:
Last digit of (Second last digit of base) X (Last digit of power)
Let us look at few examples

Eg 1a: Second last digit of 3791768 = Last digit of 9×8 = 2
Eg 1b: Second last digit of 1739768 = Second last digit of 39768 = Second last digit of Second Last digit
of 1521384 = Last digit of 2 × 4 = 8
Eg 1c: Second last digit of 9317768 = Second last digit of 17768 = Second last digit of (174) 192 = Second
last digit of (…21) 192 = Last digit of 2 x 2 = 4
Concept 2: What to do when the last digit is even?
The second last digit always depends on the last two digits of the number so anything before that
can be easily neglected.
We need to remember the following ideas:

 **2 raised to power 10 will always end in 24.
 24 raised to an even power will always end in 76 and to an odd power will always end in 24.
 76 raised to any power will always end in 76.
Now we can use these to find out the second last digit. We reduce the number in such a way that
the last two digits of the base become 76.
Eg 2a: Second last digit of 1372482

 Second last digit of 72482
 Second last digit of 72480 x 722
 Second last digit of (7210) 48 x (**84)
 Second last digit of 2448 x (**84)
 Second last digit of 6384 = 8
Eg 2b: Second last digit of 48307 = (483) 102 x 48 = (****92) 102 x 48

 Second last digit of 92100 x 922 x 48 = 76 x (**64) x 48
 Second last digit of (****72) = 7
Eg 2c: Second last digit of 15484 = Second last digit of (54) 84

 Second last digit of (545) 16 x 544 = (***24) 16 x (542) 2
 Second last digit of 76 x (2916) 2
 Second last digit of 4256 = 5
I hope that after reading this post you will be at ease in figuring out the second last digit. I also hope
that you will not mind winning silver medals either.
Algebra
Maxima and Minima in Quadratic and other

polynomials
Quadratic Equations are first taught to us in 6th or 7th class and most of us are able to score good
marks in it because we are able to solve 90% of the questions by just using that formula. And that
formula is:
The above formula gives us the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
For this post, I am assuming that you are aware of the basics of quadratic equations and know how
to use the above mentioned formula. In case you are not, spending five minutes on the wiki page of
Quadratic Equations won’t hurt. Wikipedia can be daunting at times, so come back here as soon as
you start feeling woozy.
In this particular post, I am going to discuss ideas related to maxima and minima with respect to
equations and quadratic equations in particular.
The first thing that you need to understand is that a quadratic equation will either have a maxima or
a minima but it cannot have both. The reason for that is, a quadratic equation is shaped like a
parabola which is either open upwards or downwards.
As you can see here, the parabola is open upwards and it will only have a minima
As you can see here, the parabola is open downwards and it will only have a maxima
The nature of the graph of the quadratic equation is decided by the co-efficient of x2.
If the co-efficient of x2 is greater than 0, the parabola will be open upwards and hence it will have a
minima.
If the co-efficient of x2 is less than 0, the parabola will be open upwards and hence it will have a
maxima.
Once you have decided whether it will be a maxima or a minima the next task is to figure out two
things:
a) The point at which the maxima / minima occurs

b) The maximum / minimum value of the quadratic equation
Let us try to figure these values out with the help of an example of both types i.e. when co-efficent
of x 2 is greater than 0 and when it is less than 0
Case 1: a > 0


Now, we know that a perfect square is always non-negative
 The lowest value that (x-2) 2 can take is 0

 The minimum value that the entire quadratic can take is 3
 The minima occurs at x = 2 when x-2 is 0
Case 2: a < 0


Now, we know that a perfect square is always non-negative
 The lowest value that (x+3) 2 can take is 0

 The maximum value that the entire quadratic can take is 16
 The maxima occurs at x = -3 when x+3 is 0
As you might have realised, the above idea of ‘completing a square’ can be used to find out the
maximum / minimum value and also the point at which the maxima/minima occurs in any quadratic
equation. Based upon the logic given above, there is also a set of formulas that you can use for a
quadratic equation represented by ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Maxima / Minima occurs at –b/2a
Maximum / Minimum value is (4ac – b2) / 4a
To make things a little more complicated, you might get a question in which the quadratic equation
is in the denominator. It is sometimes also referred to as the rational function.
Example 1: Constant / Quadratic Rational Function
Find out the maximum or minimum value of 3 / (2x^2 – 5x + 7)
We know that the denominator is a quadratic equation with a > 0
 The denominator will have a minimum value at –b/2a = 5/2 and the value will be (4ac – b2) /
4a = 31/8
 The function will have a maximum value at 5/2 and the value will be 3/(31/8) = 24/31
Example 2: Linear / Quadratic Rational Function
Find out the maximum and minimum value of
Assume


For x to be real, the discrimnant of the above equation should be non-negative






Maximum value of the function is 1 and the minimum value of the function is -1/7
Example 3: Quadratic / Quadratic Rational Function
5
Find out the least value of
5
Assume
 5
 5
For x to be real, the discrimnant of the above equation should be non-negative
 5
 5


So, the least value of the function is -1/3,
Let me add that it is not necessary that you will always be able to find out the maximum and / or the
minimum value of a rational function.
Basics of functions and modifications of graphs
XAT’s Quant is always a little bit on the tougher side. It is said that the paper would be do-able and
the level of difficulty will see a dip. That does not mean that the difficulty level would suddenly drop
to the standard of elementary mathematics. XAT traditionally focuses more on topics like functions,
probability, permutation & combination, etc. more than the CAT exam. In this post we will discuss
some basic tips about functions and how graphs of functions change.
Let us see what the function y = f(x) = x 3 + 7 looks like:
When we do y = -f (x) we will have to reflect the graph in the x-axis. Given below is what it is going
to look like. As you can see, this image would be obtained if we had put a mirror on the X -axis.
When we do y = f(-x) = -x3 + 7 we will have to reflect the graph in the y-axis. Given below is what it is
going to look like. As you can see, this image would be obtained if we had put a mirror on the Y-Axis
We also know that for even functions, f(x) = f(-x), so their graphs would be identical in nature. We
can also say that a function is even if its mirror image in the Y-axis is identical to the original.
Given below are the graphs of even functions cos(x) and cos(-x)
We also know that for odd functions, f(-x) = - f (x) The graph of an odd function has rotational
symmetry with respect to the origin, meaning that its graph remains unchanged after rotation of 180
degrees about the origin. This means that if you reflect the graph of an odd function first in the X-
axis and then in the Y-axis, the resultant graph would be same as the identical. Let us check this out:
y = f(x) = x + 5 sin(x)
To find out its reflection in the X-axis, we will need to
y = - f(x) = - [x + 5 sin(x)]
As you can see, if you reflect the above graph in Y-axis, you will get back the original.
In the modifications discussed above, we talked about reflection about the X-axis or the Y-axis.
However, there can be other modifications as well, in which the graph shifts up, down, left or right.
Let us look at those.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x) + c (where c is a constant) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units
upwards (in the direction of the y-axis).
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x) - c (where c is a constant) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units
downwards (in the direction of the y-axis).
If we consider f(x) = x 2, given below are the graphs of f(x), f(x) + 20 and f(x) – 10. As you can see, the
red graph is shifted 20 units upwards and the orange graph is shifted 10 units downwards from the
original blue graph.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x + c) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units to the left.
If y = f(x), the graph of y = f(x – c) will be the graph of y = f(x) shifted c units to the right.
If we consider f(x) = x 2, given below are the graphs of f(x), f(x+5) and f(x-3). As you can see, the red
graph is shifted 5 units left and the orange graph is shifted 3 units right from the original blue graph.
The graph of y = af(x) is a stretch scale factor a in the y-axis. This is because all the y-values become
'a' times bigger.
The graph of f(ax) is also a stretch. This time the multiple affects the x-values. (Everything happens
'a' times quicker.) Therefore:
The graph of f(ax) is a stretch scale factor 1/a in the x-axis.
Another modification which happens is in the case of y = |f(x)| In this case, whatever portion is
below the X-axis gets reflected in the x-axis.
Check the examples below:
Given below is the graph of f(x) = |Sin(x)| to clarify it further.
I guess we will wrap it up here and hope this would help you with your functions.
Roots of an Equation
I am quite sure that most of you, if not all of you would be aware of the basics of quadratic equation
but just to provide a brief refresher:
For a quadratic equation given represented by ax^2 + bx + c = 0
 Roots are given by (-b + sqrt(b^2 – 4ac))/2a & (-b - sqrt(b^2 – 4ac))/2a
 Sum of the roots is –b/a
 Product of the roots is c/a
You can expect a problem or two based upon the idea of roots and solving equations in CAT and
other exams. If you are lucky, it would be something on the simpler side like this:
Example 1: Amar, Akbar and Antony solve a given quadratic equation. Amar commits a mistake in
the constant term and finds the roots as 8 and 2. Akbar commits a mistake in the coefficient of x and
finds the roots as -9 and -1. If Antony solves the equations without making any mistakes, what roots
does he find?
Amar’s equation
(x – 8)(x – 2) = 0
x^2 – 10x + 16 = 0
Akbar’s equation
(x + 9)(x + 1) = 0
x^2 + 10x + 9 = 0
Antony will form the correct equation by taking the coefficient of x from Amar’s equation and the
constant term from Akbar’s equation.
So, Antony’s equation will be:
x^2 – 10x + 9 = 0
(x – 1)(x – 9) = 0
Roots are going to 9 and 1.
But sometimes, questions can be a little more complex and deal with polynomials of higher degree.
It is important to note that the pattern of sum of the roots, product of the roots, etc. is followed in
polynomials of higher degree as well.
Given below are couple of examples of Cubic and Biquadratic equations which are basically
equations of degree 3 and 4 respectively.
Cubic equation
ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d = 0
 Sum of the roots = - b/a

 Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time = c/a
 Product of the roots = -d/a
Biquadratic or a Quartic equation
ax^4 + bx^3 + cx^2 + dx + e = 0
 Sum of the roots = - b/a

 Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time = c/a
 Sum of the product of the roots taken three at a time = -d/a
 Product of the roots = e/a
I guess that with the help of the above two equations you would be able to identify the fact that for
a polynomial:
 Sum of the roots is given by –(Coefficient of second highest power of x)/ (Coefficient
of highest power of x)
 Product of the roots is given by (+ or –)Constant/(Coefficient of highest power of x)
 The + / - sign alternates and the other coefficients help us determine the sum of
product of roots taken 2 at a time, 3 at a time, etc.
Let us look at couple of examples to understand how this can be used.
Example 2: If a, b and c are the roots of the equation x^3 – 3x^2 + x + 1 = 0 find the value of
a) 1/a + 1/b + 1/c

b) 1/ab + 1/bc + 1/ca
c) (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)
Solution:
a) 1/a + 1/b + 1/c = (ab + bc + ca)/abc = 1/-1 = -1

b) 1/ab + 1/bc + 1/ca = (a + b + c)/abc = -(-3)/(-1) = -3
c) If a, b & c are the roots of the equation, then:
f(x) = x^3 – 3x^2 + x + 1 = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) = 0
f(-1) = – 1 – 3 – 1 + 1 = (– 1 – a)( – 1 – b)( – 1 – c)
f(-1) = – 4 = – (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)
So, (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1) = 4
As you can see, by using the ideas listed above in the post, the questions have become a lot easier
and there is no need to actually find out the value of the roots.
Example 3: Given that three roots of f(x) = x^4 + ax^2 + bx + c are 2, – 3, and 5. What is the value of a
+ b + c?
We have to find out a + b + c
f(1) is 1 + a + b + c
So, we need to find out f(1) – 1
Let the 4th root be r
Coefficient of x^3 = -(Sum of the roots)
0 = - (r + 2 -3 + 5)
r=- 4
So, f(x) = (x – 2) (x + 3) (x + 4)(x – 5)
f(1) = (-1)*4*5*(-4) = 80
a + b + c = f(1) – 1 = 80 – 1 = 79
I have a feeling that these ideas would be more helpful in XAT than CAT as on most occasions,
quantitative aptitude is tougher in XAT. May be I have a sample bias but I feel that XAT paper setters
favor topics like algebra and functions than their CAT counterparts.
Let me end with this:
And then Satan said, 'Put the alphabet in math....'
Number of Integral, Whole Number and Natural

Number Solutions
A very common type of problem that we get in CAT is when we are asked to find out the number of
integral solutions to a given equation. I have always found it hard to categorize such sort of
problems in a particular category. A case can be made that such questions belong to Number System
or Permutation and Combination or even Algebra. Without going into the nomenclature bit, I would
like to explain some of these ideas in this post.
Funda 1: a + b + c + d … = n
No. of integral solutions will be infinite.
Let me take a simple case where a + b = 100
One solution for this would be a = 100 & b = 0
Another one would be a = 101 & b = – 1
As you can see, there is not going to be an end to this list and this will have infinitely many solutions.
To get a finite answer, you need to put in some sort of restrictions on it. One such restriction could
be
|a| < 100 and |b| < 50
In such a case,
‘a’ can take any integral value from -99 to 99 whereas ‘b’ can take any value from -49 to 49.
Now, we can only decrease the value of ‘b’. So, we will have to increase the value of ‘a’. So,
Another solution would be a = 52 & b = 48
So, the total number of solutions in this case is 49.
Funda 2: a + b + c + d … = n
No. of whole number solutions will be (n+r-1) C (r-1)
Let us take a simple case, where a + b = 100
Another solution for this would be a = 99 & b = 1
So, the total number of solutions in this case is 101. We could have also used the formula for finding
out the number of whole number solutions. n = 100 and r = 2 in this case ( ‘r’ represents the number
of variables in the equation in which the sum has to be distributed)
By applying the formula, we would have got (100+2-1) C (2-1) = 101 C 1 = 101
I agree that for something as simple as this, we do not need the formula but even for a smaller value
with even 3 variables, finding out the cases / solutions without the formula would be extremely
hard. In case you do not believe me, try and find out the number of whole number solutions for
a + b + c = 10
By applying the formula, we will get (10 + 3 – 1) C (3 – 1) = 12 C 2 = 12*11/2 = 66.
So, total number of whole number solutions in this case is 66.
It is also important to understand why this formula works but I think I will reserve that idea for
another post. I have a feeling that by the time I reach the end of this post, I would have crossed the
prescribed word-limit.
Funda 3: a + b + c + d … = n
No. of natural number solutions will be (n-1) C (r-1)
Consider, a + b + c + d = 100
Number of natural number solutions for this would be (100-1) C (4-1) = 99C3 = 99*98*97/3*2*1 =
156849
Funda 4: ax + by = n
 The integer values of ‘x’ will be in an Arithmetic Progression with a common

difference of ‘b’
 The integer values of ‘y’ will be in an Arithmetic Progression with a common
difference of ‘a’
Let us look at a question from CAT 2003 to understand the application of this idea:
If x and y are integers then the equation 5x + 19y = 64 has:
(a) a solution for 250 < x < 260
(b) no solution for x > 250 and y >-100
(c) no solution for x < 300 and y < 0
(d) a solution for -59 < y < -56
One solution for the equation would be x = 9 & y = 1
When x will increase y will decrease and their values will be
x = 9, 28, 47, 66, …
y = 1, -4, -9, -14, …
So, the value of y in case of negative integers will always end in 4 or 9. This eliminates option ( d)
There will be a solution for x = 256 & y = -64. This eliminates B & C and makes option (a) as the
answer.
Please note that this idea can also be applied if you are trying to find out whole number solutions or
natural number solutions as well.
Funda 5: ax + by + cz = n
First of all, it is highly unlikely that you will get something like this in CAT. Even if you do get
something like this in the exam, I recommend trying out some other questions because the time you
will spend on calculating something like this in the exam might be better used elsewhere.
To solve, such questions it is best to take cases. If you select your cases smartly, you will find out the
answer a lot faster.
Let us try to solve:
Example: Find out the whole number solutions for 2x + 3y + 5z = 50
Now, the coefficient of z is the biggest so let us define our cases based upon various values of z
which are possible.
z = 0, 1, 2, 3 .. 10
If z = 0; 2x + 3y = 50. x will be {1, 4, 7 … 25}. No. of solutions = 9
If z = 1; 2x + 3y = 45. x will be {0, 3, 6, … 21}. No. of solutions = 8
If z = 3; 2x + 3y = 35. x will be {1, 4, 7, … 16}. No. of solutions = 6
If z = 5; 2x + 3y = 25. x will be {2, 5, 8, 11}. No. of solutions = 4
If z = 6; 2x + 3y = 20. x will be {1, 4, 7, 10}. No. of solutions = 4
If z = 7; 2x + 3y = 15. x will be {0, 3, 6}. No. of solutions = 3
If z = 8; 2x + 3y = 10. x will be {2, 5}. No. of solutions = 2
If z = 9; 2x + 3y = 5. x will be {1}. No. of solutions = 1
If z = 10; 2x + 3y = 0. x will be {0}. No. of solutions = 1
Total number of solutions = 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 6 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 51 solutions.
If you did not agree with me earlier that such questions should not be attempted in CAT, may be you
would agree with me after reading the solution.
I hope you found this post useful. Please provide feedback and suggestions for future posts via the
comment section.
Arithmetic
Basics of Time, Distance & Speed
I guess my first fascination with problems of Time, Speed and Distance began when I first saw
Heena. An important part of the storyline, if you can call it that, saw Rishi Kapoor floating from India
to Pakistan without drowning. I remember arguing with my friends that if could float for that long –
he could swim back to India as well. My friends nullified the argument by saying:
Speed River > Speed Rishi Kapoor
I know that the reference is a little dated for most readers of this post, but Zeba Bhaktiyar made me
look beyond reason. In this post we will discuss some of the ideas that have helped me solve TSD
problems without forming too many equations.
Funda 1: Average Speed
We know that the average speed in a journey is given by (Total Distance Covered) / (Total Time
Taken); but there are few special cases which might help in solving questions -
 If the distance covered is constant ( in each part of the journey, then the
average speed is Harmonic Mean of the values.
 SpeedAvg =
 If the time taken is constant ( in each part of the journey then the
average speed is Arithmetic Mean of the values.
 SpeedAvg =
Funda 2: Using Progressions (Arithmetic & Harmonic)
In many questions, you come across a situation when a person is going from Point A to Point B at
various speeds and taking various times. We know that if distance is constant, speed and time are
inversely proportional to each other. But, this information can also be used to deduce these two
facts –
 If the various speeds which are mentioned are in AP, then the corresponding times taken will be
in HP.
 If the various speeds which are mentioned are in HP, then the corresponding times taken will be
in AP.
Let us use these ideas to solve couple of quant questions.
Eg 2.1 Arun, Barun and Kiranmala start from the same place and travel in the same direction at
speeds of 30,40 and 60 km per hour respectively. Barun starts two hours after Arun. If Barun and
Kiranmala overtake Arun at the same instant, how many hours after Arun did Kiranmala start? [CAT
2006]
Note: Arun Barun Kiranmala is a 1968 Bangladeshi film. Now you can guess what inspires CAT
question setters. Here is a song from the film.
Solution As you can see that the speeds are in HP, so we can say that the times taken will be in AP.
Time difference between Arun and Barun is 2 hours, so the time difference between Barun and
Kiranbala will also be 2 hours.
Hence, Kiranbala started 4 hours after Arun.
Eg 2.2 Rishi Kapoor can swim a certain course against the river flow in 84 minutes; he can swim the
same course with the river flow in 9 minutes less than he can swim in still water. How long would he
take to swim the course with the river flow?
Solution
Let us say Speed of the Rishi Kapoor in still water is ‘RK’ and Speed of the river is ‘R’. Hence, Ri shi
Kapoor’s speeds against the river flow, in still water and with the river flow are:
RK – R, RK and RK + R.
As you can see, they are in AP.
Hence, the corresponding times taken will be in HP.
Let us say that the time taken to row down with the stream is ‘t’, then 84, t+9 and t are in HP. So,
 5
 5 5

Funda 3: Special Case
Let us say that two bodies ‘a’ & ‘b’ start at the same time from two points P & Q towards each other
and meet at a point R in between. After meeting at R, ‘a’ takes t a time to reach its destination (Q)
and ‘b’ takes tb time to reach its destination (P); then:
Also, the time taken by ‘a’ & ‘b’ to meet (i.e. to reach point R from P & Q respectively) is given by:
Note: The same formulae will be valid if two bodies ‘a’ & ‘b’ start at different times from two points P
& Q towards each other. They meet at a point R in between after travelling for t a and tb time
respectively. After meeting, they take the same amount of time (‘t’) to reach their respective
destinations (Q & P).
I hope that these ideas will help you reduce the number of equations that you form while solving
TSD problems if not completely eliminate them.
Motion of two bodies in a straight line
TSD: There are some topics in Quantitative Aptitude, like Permutation & Combination, where you
can easily find out the answer and the answer you calculate is there in the options but it turns out to
be wrong. And then there are some topics in which you read the question, understand it but cannot
even begin solving it. You get stuck at the first step and you have no idea about how to even
approach the question. The irritating fact is that you understood the question properly. It happens
very frequently with questions on Time Speed & Distance (TSD). I have always been a big adv ocate of
skipping questions which you cannot solve. More often than not, TSD questions should be skipped if
you cannot figure out how to start within the first minute. Typically the questions on TSD are based
upon certain ideas, which if you are not aware of can make solving the question extremely difficult
and time consuming. I do not think that I am even aware of all ideas / types of questions in TSD but
there are a few popular ones which have been doing the rounds in the past few years. I am going to
cover some of them in this post and probably revisit some more in the months to come. I am also
going to discuss the reasoning behind those ideas. It is very important that you understand the logic
behind the formulae before you actually start using them. If you don’t, there is a very high
probability that you will make a mistake.
To begin with, some of the very basic ideas that you should be aware of are:
 Speed = Distance / Time

 If Distance is constant, then Speed and Time are inversely proportional to each other
 Two bodies moving in the same direction would have the relative speed of S(1) – S(2) and
two bodies moving in the opposite direction would have the relative speed of S(1) + S(2)
In this particular post, I am going to talk about the motion of two bodies in a straight line starting
from opposite ends.
Case 1:
Two bodies start from opposite ends P & Q at the same time and move towards each other with
speeds S(1) & S(2). They take times of T(1) & T(2) to reach their destinations.
In such a case, the relationship between the times taken and the speeds will be
S(1) / S(2) = T(2) / T(1)
The distances that both bodies have travelled are PQ and QP respectively.
PQ = S(1) T(1)
QP = S(2) T(2)
Also, PQ = QP so the above equations can be equated to get the desired result.
Let us say that they meet at a point R in between, then
R would divide the distance PQ in the ratio of S(1):S(2)
They started at the same time and they are meeting at point R, so the time taken by both the bodies
will be the same. If we assume that time as T
PR = S(1) T
QR = S(2) T
Dividing the above two equations would give us the desired result.
Case 2:
speeds S(1) & S(2). After meeting each other, they take times of T(1) & T(2) to reach their
destinations.
Also, the time taken for the two bodies to meet will be
Let us assume that the two bodies meet at a point R, after time T.
For the first body, PR = S(1)T and RQ = S(1)T(1)
For the second body, QR = S(2)T and RP = S(2)T(2)
We know that PR = RP
 S(1)T = S(2)T(2)
We know the QR = RQ
 S(2)T = S(1)T(1)
Dividing the above two equations, we will get
Using the above result, we can obtain the value of T
Case 3:
Two bodies start from opposite ends P & Q to reach their destinations at the same time and move
towards each other with speeds S(1) & S(2). Before meeting, they take times of T(1) & T(2) to reach
the meeting point.
Also, the time taken for the two bodies to meet will be
The logic for this would be exactly the same as Case 2. Try working this out on your own.
Case 4:
speeds S(1) & S(2). They reach the opposite ends and reverse directions. They continue this to and fro
motion.
If the distance between the two bodies in the beginning is D, then
Time taken by them to meet for the first time, T = D / S(1) + S(2)
If R is the first meeting point, PR / QR = S(1) / S(2)
The idea that I am going to discuss now is only valid in the case when the greater speed is less than
twice of the lesser speed. {If S(1) > S(2), then S(1) < 2S(2)}
After the first meeting, if the bodies continue to move they will reach their respective ends and start
the return journey. They will meet again on the return journey and then proceed further. After the
first meeting, they would have covered 2D distance. Since the distance has doubled, time taken will
also double. So, the total distance covered by the bodies for their first, second, third … nth meetings
will be:
D, 3D, 5D … and (2n-1)D

So, the total times taken by the bodies for their first, second, third … nth meetings will be:
D / S(1) + S(2), 3 D / S(1) + S(2), 5 D / S(1) + S(2) … and (2n-1) D / S(1) + S(2)
In case you need to figure out the point at which the bodies meet for the nth time, consider only one
of the bodies, say 1.
Distance covered by 1 till the nth meeting = [S(1)/S(2)]*(2n-1)D . The remainder of the above when
divided by 2D will give you the exact location of the nth meeting point.
For example, if the distance covered by 1 till the nth meeting comes out as 700 meters and D = 150
meters, the nth meeting point can be obtained by the remainder of 700/300 which is 100. So, the
nth meeting point will be 100 m from P.
I know you would hate me for saying this, but this is not the end of TSD. This is not even the end of
motion of two bodies in a straight line. The destination is still far away and hopefully we will reach
there in time.
CLOCKS – FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Questions on clocks (or even calendars) are not really frequent in CAT these days. They used to be
really popular few years ago. Having said that, it is always better to understand some of the basic
principles and the types of problems that get asked. They might come in handy in case of other
exams like CMAT, MAT, SNAP, etc.
Clock problems can be broadly classified in two categories:
a) Problems on angles
b) Problems on incorrect clocks
Problems on angles
Before we actually start solving problems on angles, we need to get couple of basic facts clear:
 Speed of the hour hand = 0.5 degrees per minute (dpm) {The hour hand completes a
full circle or 360 degrees in 12 hours or 720 minutes}
 Speed of the minute hand = 6 dpm {The minute hand completes a full circle in 60
minutes}
 At ‘n’ o’ clock, the angle of the hour hand from the vertical is 30n
The questions based upon these could be of the following types
Example 1: What is the angle between the hands of the clock at 7:20
At 7 o’ clock, the hour hand is at 210 degrees from the vertical.
In 20 minutes,
Hour hand = 210 + 20*(0.5) = 210 + 10 = 220 {The hour hand moves at 0.5 dpm}
Minute hand = 20*(6) = 120 {The minute hand moves at 6 dpm}
Difference or angle between the hands = 220 – 120 = 100 degrees
Example 2: At what time do the hands of the clock meet between 7:00 and 8:00
Ans: At 7 o’ clock, the hour hand is at 210 degrees from the vertical.
In ‘t’ minutes
Hour hand = 210 + 0.5t
Minute hand = 6t
They should be meeting each other, so
210 + 0.5t = 6t
 t = 210/5.5 = 420/11= 38 minutes 2/11th minute

Hands of the clock meet at 7 : 38 : 2/11th
Example 3: At what time do the hands of a clock between 7:00 and 8:00 form 90 degrees?
Ans: At 7 o’ clock, the hour hand is at 210 degrees from the vertical.
In ‘t’ minutes
Hour hand = 210 + 0.5t
Minute hand = 6t
The difference between them should be 90 degrees. Please note that it can be both before the
meeting or after the meeting. You will get two answers in this case, one when hour hand is ahead
and the other one when the minute hand is ahead.
Case 1: 210 + 0.5t – 6t = 90
 5.5t = 120
 t = 240/11 = 21 minutes 9/11th of a minute
Case 2: 6t – (210 + 0.5t) = 90
 5.5t = 300
 t = 600/11 = 54 minutes 6/11th of a minute
So, the hands of the clock are at 90 degrees at the following timings:
7 : 21 : 9/11 th and 7 : 54 : 6/11th
Some other results which might be useful:
 Hands of a clock meet at a gap of 65 5/11 minutes.

 The meetings take place at 12:00:00, 1:05:5/11, 2:10:10/11 … and so on.
 Hands of a clock meet 11 times in 12 hours and 22 times in a day.
 Hands of a clock are perfectly opposite to each other (i.e. 180 degrees) 11 times in
12 hours and 22 times a day. {Same as above}
 Any other angle is made 22 times in 12 hours and 44 times in a day
Problems on incorrect clocks
Such sort of problems arise when a clock runs faster or slower than expected pace. When solving
these problems it is best to keep track of the correct clock.
Example 4: A watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes and was set right at 8 AM. What time will it show at
10 PM on the same day?
Ans: The watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes => 100 seconds in 1 hour.
From 8 AM to 10 PM on the same day, time passed is 14 hours.
In 14 hours, the watch would have gained 1400 seconds or 23 minutes 20 seconds.
So, when the correct time is 10 PM, the watch would show 10 : 23 : 20 PM
Example 5: A watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes and was set right at 8 AM. If it shows 5:15 in the
afternoon on the same day, what is the correct time?
Ans: The watch gains 5 seconds in 3 minutes => 1 minute in 36 minutes
From 8 AM to 5:15, the incorrect watch has moved 9 hours and 15 minutes = 555 minutes.
When the incorrect watch moves for 37 minutes, correct watch moves for 36 minutes.
 When the incorrect watch moves for 1 minute, correct watch moves for 36/37
minutes
 When the incorrect watch moves for 555 minutes, correct watch moves for
(36/37)*555 = 36*15 minutes = 9 hours
 9 hours from 8 AM is 5 PM.
 The correct time is 5 PM.
I am sure you would have heard the proverb that even a broken clock is right twice a day. However,
a clock which gains or loses a few minutes might not be right twice a day or even once a day. It
would be right when it had gained / lost exactly 12 hours.
Example 6: A watch loses 5 minutes every hour and was set right at 8 AM on a Monday. When will it
show the correct time again?
Ans: For the watch to show the correct time again, it should lose 12 hours.
It loses 5 minutes in 1 hour
 It loses 1 minute in 12 minutes

 It will lose 12 hours (or 720 minutes) in 720*12 minutes = 144 hours = 6 days
 It will show the correct time again at 8 AM on Sunday.
I hope that this session was useful to you. If it wasn’t let me present the greatest song on clocks that
has ever been written in any language – click here. (No. It is not Coldplay)
Dealing with Percentages – Part 1
A percentage, for the lack of a better definition, is a number or ratio as a fraction of 100. Probably
the oldest application of it, like so many other things in today’s world, was at the time of the Roman
empire. Augustus, founder of the Roman Empire and its first Emperor, levied a tax of 1/100 on goods
sold at auction known as centesima rerum venalium. Computation with these fractions were similar
to computing percentages. The word itself is derived from the Latin per centum meaning “by the
hundred”. The percent sign evolved by gradual contraction of the phrase per cento. The "per" was
often abbreviated as "p." and eventually disappeared entirely. The "cento" was contracted to two
circles separated by a horizontal line from which the modern "%" is derived. But enough about
history and let us come back to the present and some practical uses of the same.
Percentage as Fractions:
One of the most useful tips, when it comes to percentage, is the use of fractions in calculating them.
Given below is a table which can help you get started. There is no better way to remember these
values than to start using them in your daily calculations.
Fraction %age Fraction %age
1/2 50% 1/9 11.11%
1/3 33.33% 1/10 10%
1/4 25% 1/11 9.09%
1/5 20% 1/12 8.33%
1/6 16.66% 1/13 7.69%
1/7 14.28% 1/14 7.14%
1/8 12.5% 1/15 6.66%
Example: Find out 28.5% of 476
a) 135.66 b) 136 c) 136.28 d)136.43
As you can see here the option are really close and you might think that you would have to calculate
the actual value. But if you are well versed with the table given above you can save some effort and
time in doing so. These seconds you save might be vital in the exam.
To calculate 28.5%, I urge you to have a closer look at 1/7.
1/7 represents 14.28%, so 2/7 would represent 28.56% which is freakishly close to the percentage
that we are looking for.
Also, calculating 2/7 of 476 is not that difficult as 476/7 is divisible by 7 and it is 68. So, 2/7 of 476
will be 136.
Now, we know that 2/7 is 28.56% and we also know that that it is 136.
Our answer will be little less than 136 as we are trying to find out 28.5% which is a little less than
28.56%. So, our answer would be 135.66. Option A
Percentage Change:
To find out the percentage change, you can use the formula
% change =
A lot of people make a mistakes in calculating values related to the given formula because they do
not calculate % change based upon the initial value.
Example: My current salary is Rs. 1000 a day, which is 25% higher than what it was last year. What
was my salary last year?
If you think that the answer to the above question is Rs. 750 per day then you are making the same
mistake that lot of students make. The raise that I got (25%) was not on my current salary but the
initial value, which was my salary previous year.
To calculate it correctly, let us assume my last year’s salary to be ‘x’ Rs. per day.
 A 25% increase means an increase of ¼,

 My current salary is 5/4 of my previous year’s salary.
 This means that my salary last year was 4/5 of my current salary.
 My last year’s salary =
Changing Quantities by Percents:
The simplest way to change a number by a given percent is to simply multiply it by the ‘final’
percentage.
That is, to increase a number by x%, simply multiply it by (100 + x)% or , and to decrease it by
x%, simply multiply it by (100 – x)% or
Example: A piece of paper is in the shape of a right angled triangle and is cut along a line that is
parallel to the hypotenuse, leaving a smaller triangle. There was a 35% reduction in the length of the
hypotenuse of the triangle. If the area of the original triangle was 34 square inches before the cut,
what is the area (in square inches) of the smaller triangle?
a.16.665 b. 16.565 c. 15.465 d. 14.365
If the hypotenuse reduced by 35%, it became 100 – 35 = 65% of the original or in other words it
became 0.65 times the original. The other two sides also become 0.65 times the original. Area will
become (0.65)^2 = 0.4225 times the original.
New area = 0.4225*34 = 14.365. Option D
I hope that you liked this introductory article on ‘Percentage’. In part 2, I will cover two important
concepts:
a) Successive Percentage Changes

b) Compensating a Percentage Change
If you have any other ideas or suggestions with respect to ideas that should be covered in ‘Dealing
with Percentage – Part 2’ please feel free to use the comment section.
Dealing with Percentage – Part 2
This is in continuation of my previous post on Percentage. In case you haven’t gone through it, I
suggest you read that first. In Part 1, I discussed the basic concepts covering the following:
 Percentage as Fractions
 Percentage Change
 Changing Quantities by Percents
I would like to discuss couple more ideas in this post. Let us begin.
Successive Percentage Change:
I am sure you would have seen retail stores with offers like 50% + 40% off. If my memory serves me
right, these type of offers were made extremely popular by Koutons. I always thought of it as a 90%
off offer but clearly I was wrong. I guess some of you might have made the same mistake as well. A
50% + 40% off does not mean a 90% off. It actually means that you will be given a discount of 50%
first and then on the reduced price you will given another 40% discount. Let us calculate to figure
out how much this actually means.
Let us assume that the T-shirt you are trying to buy costs 100 Rs. A 50% discount would bring down
the price of the T-shirt to 50 Rs. Another 40% discount on the reduced price of 50 Rs. would further
bring down the price by 20 Rs., which is 40% of 50, to 30Rs. So, the price has effectively gone down
from 100 Rs. to 30 Rs. which means that the effective discount has been 70% and not 90%.
Let me ask you another question. Try to answer it in your head before you actually scroll down and
check the answer.
Example 1: Shop A is selling a T-shirt at a discount of 50% + 40% on the MRP whereas shop B is
selling the same T-shirt at a discount of 40% + 50%. You should buy the T-shirt from Shop A or Shop
B?
Now, there might be a few things going on in your head like ‘A’ is better because it is offering higher
percentage first or ‘B’ is better because it is offering higher percentage later or this cannot be
determined until and unless we know the MRP of the T-shirt. Well, stop your internal monologue.
The answer is that it would not make a difference whether you buy it from Shop A or from Shop B.
Don’t believe me – do the math.
Let us assume that the MRP of the T-shirt is ‘x’
From Shop A, a 50% discount would bring down the price to 0.5x and another 40% discount would
bring down the price to 0.3x
From Shop B, a 40% discount would bring down the price to 0.6x and another 50% discount would
bring down the price to 0.3x
As you can see the sale price is coming out to be the same in both cases.
In case you are wondering as to why it is the same in both cases, it is because percentages are
multiplicative in nature and p*q is always the same as q*p.
For future reference, you can use the formula for effective % change in case of successive % changes
of a% and b% is
Note: Please keep in mind the +/- sign while using the formula.
If you put a = 50% and b = 40% (from the above example), you would get 110% which would be the
incorrect answer. You should use -50% and -40% to get the correct answer of -70%. You will have to
use –ive values for the above example because the % changes considered are discounts.
Example 2: A company’s revenue grew by 10% and 20% in the 2009 and 2010 but fell by 25% in
2011. What was the net % change?
Use the formula for the first two years = 10 + 20 + 10*20/100 = 32
Combine this with the last year = 32 – 25 + (32)(-25)/100 = 7 – 8 = -1%
Compensating Percentage Change:
I am sure you must have encountered questions like these:
a) The price of beer has gone up by 25%, by how much should you reduce your consumption so
that the your expenses do not change.
b) Ravi got a salary hike of 10%. The new boss thought this shouldn’t have happened because
Ravi doesn’t deserve it, so he slashes Ravi’s salary by 10%. Is Ravi back to the original? If no,
then by what % should Ravi’s boss deduct his salary.
Now there are couple of ways of doing these questions. One is using the concepts of fractions,
proportionality, etc. The other one is by using the formula. Let us discuss both of them
a) Price of beer has gone up by 25%

 Price of beer has increased by 1/4th
 Price of beer has become 5/4th
 Consumption should become 4/5th
 Consumption should reduce by 1/5th
 Consumption should reduce by 20%
b) A hike of 10% and then a reduction of 10% won’t be fair as Ravi would end up getting less than
the original. Using the successive % change formula {10 – 10 + 10*(-10)/100 = -1}, we can say
that he would end up getting 1% lesser than the original. To get the correct deduction value:
Ravi’s salary was hiked by 10%
 Ravi’s salary has increased by 1/10th

 Ravi’s salary has become 11/10th
 To go back to the original, it should become 10/11th of the current value
 It should reduce by 1/11
 It should reduce by 9.09%
We could have also used the formula for compensating a change of r%
a) r = 25%. Compensating % change = – (100*25)/(100+25)
–20% = reduction of 20%
b) r = 10%. Compensating % change = – (100*10)/(100+10)
–9.09% = reduction of 9.09%
I hope you found this post useful and it would help you get a higher percentage and percentile in
your exam.
Geometry
Geometry Fundas-1
I got a lot of feedback via comments on my previous posts that people are looking for a post on
Geometry. I have been avoiding it for sometime because of two main reasons:
a) It is not one of my strong areas.

b) It takes a lot of time to draw the diagrams that are sometimes required to explain the
fundas.
With Diwali and CAT approaching I realized that I could not procrastinate anymore because
Geometry, as you would agree, is a very important part of CAT-prep. I have compiled a list of fundas
that you might find helpful in solving CAT level questions. I am splitting those in two posts so that
one post does not become too long / intimidating. In this post, we will discuss Geometry fundas
related to lines, triangles, parallelograms, trapeziums, polygons, etc.
You might find some of them very simple or ideas that are obvious to you. If that is the case, be glad
that your prep is up to the mark. If not, then be glad you got them in time. (Yes – I am inspired by
two-face )
Funda 1:
The ratio of intercepts formed by a transversal intersecting three parallel lines is equal to the ratio of
corresponding intercepts formed by any other transversal.
Funda 2:
Centroid and Incenter will always lie inside the triangle. About the other points:
- For an acute angled triangle, the Circumcenter and the Orthocenter will lie inside the
triangle.
- For an obtuse angled triangle, the Circumcenter and the Orthocenter will lie outside the
triangle.
- For a right-angled triangle, the Circumcenter will lie at the midpoint of the hypotenuse and
the Orthocenter will lie at the vertex at which the angle is 90°.
Funda 3:
The orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter always lie on the same line known as Euler Line.
- The orthocenter is twice as far from the centroid as the circumcenter is.
- If the triangle is Isosceles then the incenter lies on the same line.
- If the triangle is equilateral, all four are the same point.
Funda 4:
Appolonius’ Theorem {AD is the median}
AB2 + AC2 = 2 (AD2 + BD2)
Funda 5: For cyclic quadrilaterals –
Area = where s is the semi perimeter
Also, Sum of product of opposite sides = Product of diagonals
 ac + bd = PR x QS
Funda 6:
If a circle can be inscribed in a quadrilateral, its area is given by =
Funda 7:
Parallelograms
 A parallelogram inscribed in a circle is always a Rectangle. A parallelogram circumscribed

about a circle is always a Rhombus. So, a parallelogram that can be circumscribed about a
circle and in which a circle can be inscribed will be a Square.
 Each diagonal divides a parallelogram in two triangles of equal area.
 Sum of squares of diagonals = Sum of squares of four sides
AC2 + BD2 = AB2 + BC2 + CD2 + DA2
 A Rectangle is formed by intersection of the four angle bisectors of a parallelogram.
 From all quadrilaterals with a given area, the square has the least perimeter. For all
quadrilaterals with a given perimeter, the square has the greatest area.
Funda 8:
Trapeziums
 Sum of the squares of the length of the diagonals = Sum of squares of lateral sides + 2
Product of bases.
AC2 + BD2 = AD2 + BC2 + 2 x AB x CD
 If a trapezium is inscribed in a circle, it has to be an isosceles trapezium.
 If a circle can be inscribed in a trapezium, Sum of parallel sides = Sum of lateral sides.
Funda 9:
 A regular hexagon can be considered as a combination of six equilateral triangles.

 All regular polygons can be considered as a combination of ‘n’ isosceles triangles.
I will wrap up this post here. In my next and final post on Geometry we will discuss fundas related to
circles (specifically – common tangents), solid figures, mensuration and co-ordinate geometry.
Geometry Fundas-2
This is my second post on PG with respect to Geometry Fundas. We discussed lines, triangles,
parallelograms, trapeziums, polygons, etc. in my previous post. <please hyperlink>
Let us look at few of the fundas / formulae in Geometry that are often neglected by students and
can fetch some crucial marks in the exam.
Funda 1: Angle made by Secants
= ½ [ m(Arc AC) – m(Arc BD) ]
= ½ [ m(Arc AC) + m(Arc BD) ]
In both these cases, PA * PB = PC * PD
Funda 2: Common Tangents
No. of Common
Two Circles Distance Between Centers (d)
Tangents
One is completely inside

0 < r1 - r2
other
Touch internally 1 = r1 - r2
Intersect 2 r1 - r2 < d < r1 + r2
Touch externally 3 = r1 + r2
One is completely outside

4 > r1 + r2
other
Length of the Direct Common Tangents (DCT)
 AD = BC =
Length of the Transverse Common Tangent (TCT)
 RT = SU =
Note: The two centers(O and O’), point of intersection of DCTs (P)and point of intersection of TCTs
(Q) are collinear. Q divides OO’ in the ratio r1 : r2 internally whearea P divides OO’ in the ratio r1 : r2
externally.
Funda 3: Solids
 If a sphere is inscribed in a cube of side a, the radius of the sphere will be a/2. If a sphere is
circumscribed about a cube of side a, the radius of the sphere will be a /2.
 If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cylinder of radius ‘a’ and hei ght h, its radius r will
be
o r = h/2 {If 2a > h}
o r=a {If 2a < h}
 If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cone of radius r and slant height equal to 2r, then
the radius of sphere = r/
 If a cube is inscribed in a hemisphere of radius r, then the edge of the cube = r
Funda 4: Co-ordinate Geometry
 The X axis divides the line joining P(x1,y1 ) and Q(x2,y2) in the ratio of y 1 : y2
 The Y axis divides the line joining P(x 1,y1) and Q(x 2,y2) in the ratio of x1 : x 2
 If we know three points A(x 1,y1), B(x2,y2 ) and C(x3,y3 ) of a parallelogram, the fourth point is
given by
o (x 1 + x 3 – x2, y1 + y3 – y2)
With this I will like to wrap up this post on Geometry. Best of Luck to all of you for CAT! But
remember:
Sitaron ke aage jahan aur bhi hain;
Abhi ishq ke imtihan aur bhi hain!
MODERN MATHS
Permutations&Combination-Fundamental principles
of counting
For this series of articles, I am assuming CAT 2013 would be the first time you would be attempting
CAT, which essentially implies that you are not well versed with the basic ideas behind the
Quantitative Aptitude portion. In the latter half of the year, I would move to slightly more advanced
topics as by then, you would also have moved to the advanced stage of preparation.
I have often seen students struggle with the topic – ‘Permutation & Combination’. As a matter of
fact, I have even seen some faculties shy away from conducting those classes. This fear, for the lack
of a better word, stems from the fact that the options are often very confusing. Even if you make a
mistake, miss out a case, take a wrong factorial – the answer you obtain is invariably in the options.
One of the most basic tips that I would like to give you is this – if you are not able to solve the
question, look at the answer and then try to figure out the logic behind the answer.
I think one of the main reasons behind lot of students making mistakes in questions based on
‘Permutation & Combination’ is the fact that they start the chapter with the two formulas which are
given below:
It is wrong to start off with these formulas. It is very important to understand the logic behind these
formulas. And that is precisely what I wish to achieve with the help of this post by talking about
‘Fundamental Principles of Counting’.
Let us start with a very basic idea:
Rule of Product: If there are ‘m’ ways to do something and there are ‘n’ ways to do another, then the
total number of ways of doing both things is ‘m x n’.
To elaborate this with an example, assume that you have 4 T-shirts and 2 Jeans. The total number of
ways in which you can decide what to wear is 4 x 2 = 8.
In case you are wondering ‘Why is it 8?’, the logic is pretty simple. With every T-shirt, you have a
choice between the two Jeans. This is illustrated below:
Choices of dress: T1J1, T1J2, T2J1, T2J2, T3J1, T3J2, T4J1 and T4J2
An assumption here is that you are not bothered with trivialities such as dressing-sense. Because if
you are, then the decision of which jeans to wear with respect to a t-shirt will not be an independent
decision. The formula of ‘m x n’ ways is valid if and only if the decisions are independent of each
other.
In case the decisions are not independent, then you would have to take care of the restrictions
which are applicable.
Rule of Sum: If there are ‘m’ ways to do something and there are ‘n’ ways to do another and we
cannot do both at the same time, then there are ‘m +n’ ways to choose one of the actions.
To elaborate this with an example, assume that you have 5 Formal Shoes and 3 Cowboy Boots. The
total number of ways in which you can decide your footwear is 5 + 3 = 8.
In case you are wondering ‘Why is it 8?’, the logic is pretty simple. You can either wear Formal Shoes
or Cowboy Boots but not both. The choices are illustrated below.
Choices of footwear: FS1, FS2, FS3, FS4, FS5, CB1, CB2 and CB3
A slightly more complicated example on the same would go something like this.
Question 1: You have 4 T-shirts, 2 Jeans, 6 Sarees, 5 Formal Shoes and 3 Cowboy boots. In how many
ways can you decide what to wear?
- The answer for this is (4 x 2 + 6) x (5 + 3) = 14 x 8 = 112 ways.
I hope the logic behind the answer would be clear to you by now.
Continuing with the same idea, try to answer this question.
Question 2: You have 50 students in a class and you have to select three out those for the posts of
President, Vice-President and General Secretary. In how many ways can you do that?
- The President can be any one of the 50 students. Suppose you choose X.
The Vice-President can be any of the remaining 49 students (Not X). Suppose you choose Y.
The General Secretary can be any of the remaining 48 students (Not X or Y).
So, the total number of ways in which you can decide the students for the positions are = 50 x 49 x
48.
Question 3: In how many ways can you select and arrange ‘r’ items out of ‘n’ distinct items?
- The 1st item can be selected in ‘n’ ways.
The 2nd item can be selected in ‘n – 1’ ways.
The 3rd item can be selected in ‘n – 2’ ways.
The rth item can be selected in ‘n – r + 1’ ways.
So, the total number of ways of selecting and arranging ‘r’ items out of ‘n’ distinct items is:
As you can realize, this is a difficult formula to remember. To take care of the same, multiply (n-r)! to
both the numerator and the denominator.

Does the above formula look familiar? If not, just scroll up and see what n P r is.
Question 4: In how many ways can you arrange ‘r’ items?

- The 1st item can be selected in ‘r’ ways.
The 2nd item can be selected in ‘r – 1’ ways.
The 3rd item can be selected in ‘r – 2’ ways.
The rth item can be selected in ‘r – (r – 1)’ ways or simply put, 1 way.
So, the total ways of arranging ‘r’ items is:
Question 5: In how many ways can you select ‘r’ items out of ‘n’ distinct items?
- From Question 3, I know that the number of ways of selecting and arranging is n P r.
From Question 4, I know that the number of ways of just arranging is r!
Selecting and Arranging are independent decisions, so



The above equation not only gives us the formula for n C r, but it also gives us a very important
relationship n P r = n C r x r!
I hope with the help of this post, the logic behind n P r and n C r would have become clear to you
and you would not make a mistake in the same area ever again.
Permutation &Combination - Distribution of objects
As an astute man Mr. Gump once said, “Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what you
going to get.” The Permutations & Combinations that life presents us daily is baffling and probably it
is because of that inherent fear of choices and cases we get intimidated by such questions in the
exam. I understand that P & C is one of the dreaded topics but I hope that once you understand the
fundas given below, your fear will reduce.
Funda 1: De-arrangement
If ‘n’ distinct items are arranged in a row, then the number of ways they can be rearranged such that
none of them occupies its original position is:
Note: De-arrangement of 1 object is not possible.
Dearr(2) = 1; Dearr(3) = 2; Dearr(4) =12 – 4 + 1 = 9; Dearr(5) = 60 – 20 + 5 – 1 = 44
Eg1.1: A person has eight letters and eight addressed envelopes corresponding to those letters. In
how many ways can he put the letters in the envelopes such that exactly 5 of them get delivered
correctly?
Solution: At first, select the five letters that get delivered correctly. That can be done in 8C5 ways.
Now, the other three must get delivered to the wrong address. That can be done in Dearr(3) = 2
ways.
So, total ways is 2 x 8C5 = 2 x 56 = 112 ways.
Funda 2: Partitioning
n +r-1
‘n’ identical items in ‘r’ No restrictions: Cr-1
n-1
distinct groups No group empty: Cr-1
‘n’ distinct objects in ‘r’ No restrictions: rn
distinct groups Arrangement in a group is important:
Note: Other than standard distribution / partitioning problems, these ideas can be used to solve
questions in which number of solutions are asked.
Eg 2.1: How many solutions are there to the equation a + b + c = 100; given that
a) a, b and c are whole numbers.

b) a, b and c are natural numbers.
Solution:
Case a) is identical to a case in which 100 identical chocolates are being distributed in three kids a, b
and c. It is possible that one kid gets all the chocolates. In this case, we will use the formula for
distributing ‘n’ identical items in ‘r’ distinct groups where n = 100 and r = 3.
So, it can be done in 102 C2 ways.
Case b) is identical to a case in which 100 identical chocolates are being distributed in three kids a, b
and c. Every kid must get at least one chocolate. In this case, we will use the formula for distributing
‘n’ identical items in ‘r’ distinct groups where no group is empty and n = 100 and r = 3.
So, it can be done in 99 C2 ways.
Eg 2.2: In how many ways can you distribute 5 rings in
a) 4 boxes.
b) 4 fingers.
Solution: First of all we need to identify the difference between distributing in boxes and distributing
in 4 fingers. The distinction is that in case of fingers, unlike boxes, the order in which rings are placed
matters.
In Case a; Ring 1 can go in any of the four boxes, so it has four choices. Ring 2 can also go in any of
the four boxes, so it has four choices. Similarly for Ring 3, Ring 4 and Ring 5; there are 4 choices
each. So, the total number of ways of distribution is = 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 = 45. This is essentially how the
formula rn is derived.
In Case b; Ring 1 can go in any of the four fingers, so it has 4 choices.
Ring 2 can go in any of the four fingers but it has five choices. There is a finger, say F3, which
contains the ring R1. Now, on F3, R2 has two choices – it can go above R1 or below R1. So, the total
number of choices for R2 is 5.
Ring 3 can go in any of the four fingers but it now has 6 choices.
Ring 4 can go in any of the four fingers but it will now have 7 choices.
Ring 5 can go in any of the four fingers but it will now have 8 choices.
So, the total number of way of distribution of rings is = 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 =
This is essentially how the formula is derived.
Funda 3:
Number of ways of arranging ‘n’ items, out of which ‘p’ are alike, ‘q’ are alike and ‘r’ are alike given
that p + q + r = n
Number of ways of distributing ‘n’ distinct items, in groups of size ‘p’, ‘q’ and ‘r’ given that p + q + r =
n
I hope that this would help you solve problems in the exam. May be the chocolate you end up
getting is a Bournville. May be you would have earned it.
Set Theory - Maximum and Minimum values
The concepts of Set Theory are applicable not only in Quant / DI / LR but they can be used to solve
syllogism questions as well. Let us first understand the basics of the Venn Diagram before we move
on to the concept of maximum and minimum. A large number of students get confused in this so I
have listed out each area separately.
A venn diagram is used to visually represent the relationship between various sets.
What do each of the areas in the figure represent?
I – only A;
II – A and B but not C;
III – Only B;
IV – A and C but not B;
V – A and B and C;
VI – B and C but not A;
VII – Only C
n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) — n(A B) — n(A C) - n(B C) + n(A B C)
As per the above diagram,
n(A) = I + II + IV + V
n(B) = II + III + V + VI
n(C) = IV + V + VI + VII
n(A B) = II + V
n(B C) = V + VI
n(C A) = IV + V
n(A B C) = V
n(A B C) = I + II + III + IV + V + VI + VII
Note: While doing such questions, it is advisable that you take the least no. of variables to fill up the
empty space. As a practice if n(A B C) is missing, take that as ‘x’ and proceed.
For Maximum and Minimum of values, the key point to note is:
If you allot the a value to the intersection, it will get added to all the indivudal sets but will bring
down the total.
Example: In a survey it was found that 80% like tea whereas 70% like coffee. What is the maximum
and minimum number of those who like both?
Ans: First thing to note is that no information is mentioned about the people who don’t like either of
them. So that value is flexible and can change.
n(tea) = 80
n(coffee) = 70
n(total) = 100 {This includes those who like neither.}
n(tea U coffee) = ??? {We don’t know this value and it is flexible}
If we want to maximize those who like both, we have to maximize the value in the intersection. So,
we have to minimize the value of the union.
n(tea coffee) max = 70 {It is limited by the higher of the two values}
In this case, our venn diagram will look something like this (Red is tea & Purple is coffee):
In this case 20% of people like neither tea nor coffee.
If we want to minimize those who like both, we have to minimize the value in the intersection. So,
we have to maximize the value of the union. We know that the maximum possible value of the
union ie n(tea U coffee) = 100
So, we need to figure out the surplus : n(tea) + n(coffee) = 80 + 70 = 150.
The surplus is = 150 – 100 = 50
So, the value of the intersection = value of the surplus = 50
This could have also been obtained by the formula
n(a U b) = n(a) + n(b) – n (a b)
In this case, our venn diagram will look something like this (Red is tea & Purple is coffee):
In this case, there is no one who likes neither coffee nor tea.
Let us look at a slightly more complicated problem when we have to deal with three sets and the
value of union of the sets is fixed.
Example: In a survey it was found that 40 % like tea, 50 % like coffee and 60 % like milk. Every
person likes at least one of the three items – tea / coffee / milk. What are the maximum and
minimum possible values of those who like all three?
Solution: Currently our Venn Diagram looks like this:
First of all, we need to figure out the surplus.
Surplus = 40 +50 + 60 – 100 = 50
The surplus should be taken care of by adding to the intersection of all three or any of the two.
If we want to maximize those who like all three, we need to maximize the intersection of all three.
Adding ‘1’ to the intersection of all three takes care of a surplus of ‘2’. To take care of a surplus of 50,
we need to make
n (tea coffee milk) = 25
Note: If the union of the sets was not fixed i.e. the line ‘Every person likes at least one of the three
items – tea / coffee / milk’ was not given in the question then the answer would have been .
Our venn diagram will now look like this:
If we want to minimize those who like all three, we need to minimize the intersection of all three.
But we have to take care of the surplus of 50. We can do that adding them to the intersection of any
two of them. Adding ‘1’ to the intersection of two sets, takes care of a surplus of ‘1’. So,
n (tea coffee milk) min = 0
We can take care of the surplus 50 in many ways by adding them in any order to the intersection of
two sets. Three of those many ways are given below in Venn Diagrams.
I hope that this will help you in solving problems related to Set Theory
Dealing with 4 Sets
CAT 2012 had a little surprise for some of the students in the form of a question based on four sets.
As far as I can remember, questions from set theory in CAT have always been based on two or three
sets and CAT 2012 was the first time a question based on four sets was asked. As a concept, this had
been neglected by many coaching institutes as it had never been asked and can be time consuming
to solve in the exam.
Let us first try and understand what a Venn – Diagram for four sets would look like. If there are 4
sets (A, B, C & D), then our Venn – Diagram will need 15 separate sections. Every object can either be
in a particular set or not. This would give us a total of 2×2×2×2 = 16 choices. 1 of these choices would
be when the object will not be any of the sets. Hence, the Venn – Diagram will need 16 – 1 = 15
separate sections.
Couple of representations that I could find on Googling Venn Diagram 4 sets is given below:
Both of them are valid, but that does not mean that you can use them. May be you could, but it
would be extremely difficult to draw and manage these.
Given below is the one that I have been using for solving questions based on four sets and I do not
even remember where I first picked this up. It also indicates the 15 regions separately which need to
be covered in a Venn – Diagram of four sets. Over and above that, it is really easy to draw which is a
big plus for someone like me who once in class 6th tried to draw a deer for an assignment to draw an
animal and got pass marks because the teacher thought it was a buffalo. #TrueStory
I think it can be best understood if we solve couple of questions based upon it.
Example: In a college library, four different business newspapers - Economic times, Business
standard, Business Line and Financial Express - are available. All students visit the library regularly
but 20% of them do not read any business newspaper. The four newspapers given in the abo ve
order are read by 230,180,180 and 220 students respectively. The number of students reading
exactly 2 newspapers for any two newspapers is 20. There are 30 students who read all the four
news papers but there is nobody who reads exactly three out of four newspapers.
Questions based upon the above information are given below.
Let us first draw the Venn – Diagram with the information that is given to us. It will look something
like what I have drawn below:
We should now try to fill the missing areas such as people reading only one newspapers.
People reading only Economic Times: 230 – (20+20+20+30) = 230 – 90 = 140
People reading only Business Standard: 180 – (20+20+20+30) = 180 – 90 = 90
People reading only Business Line: 180 – (20+20+20+30) = 180 – 90 = 90
People reading only Financial Express: 220 – (20+20+20+30) = 220 – 90 = 130
If we put the above information in the Venn – Diagram, it should look something
like this:
Let us try to attempt the questions now.
1. How many students do not read any newspaper at all?
Answer: We know that 20% of the students do not read any newspaper. This means that 80% of the
students read at least one newspaper. These 80% people are represented in the 15 regions in the
above Venn – Diagram. So,
80% of total = (140 + 90 + 90 + 130) + 6×20 + 30 = 600
Total = 600/0.8 = 750
Students who do not read any newspapers = 20% of 750 = 150 students.
2) What percentage of the people reading Business Standard also read at least one other
newspaper?
Answer: Out of the 180 students who read Business Standard, 90 read only Business Standard. This
means that the other 90 students also read at least one other newspaper.
Required percentage = (90/180) ×100 = 50%
3) If all the students in the college including those who do not read any newspaper read at least one
newspaper, (Out of the four newspapers above) which he is not reading at present, then what is the
least number of students reading all the four newspapers?
Answer: If the above mentioned condition happens, all those who are reading no newspaper will
start reading one; all those who are reading one newspaper will start reading two; all those who are
reading two newspapers will start reading three and all those who are reading three newspapers will
start reading all four. The ones who were reading all four newspapers earlier will continue to read all
four.
Least number of students reading all four = No. of students reading three newspapers earlier + No.
of students four newspapers earlier = 0 + 30 = 30.
I hope after reading this you will be better placed than the students who were surprised when they
saw four set related question in CAT 2012.
I have also started a thread on Pagalguy Forums, which contains a list of all my articles till date. The
articles are sorted topic-wise and you can suggest topics for future posts on that thread.
Problems based on Grids and Chess Boards
Problems based on grids / chessboards have been asked in CAT and other MBA entrance exams over
the years. They seem really difficult when you encounter them for the first time but once you get the
hang of things they become really simple. The key lies in understanding the basic concepts involved.
The most common grid structure that we are all familiar with is the chessboard. Let us look at some
of the common questions based upon grid.
Q1. What is the number of squares on a chessboard?
Squares of size 1x1 = 8^2 = 64
Total number of squares = 1 + 4 + 9 .. 49 + 64 = 204
You could have also used the formula ^ + ^ + ^ … n^ = n(n+ )( n+ )/
In this case, you would have got = 8*9*17/6 = 12*17 = 204
Q2. What is the total number of rectangles on a chessboard?
To form a 8 x 8 chessboard, we need 9 horizontal and 9 vertical lines.
If we select any 2 lines from the 9 horizontal lines and any 2 lines from the 9 vertical lines, we will
get a rectangle
Total number of rectangles = 9C2 * 9C2 = 36*36 = 1296
Q3. In how many ways can you place 2 rooks on a chessboard such that they are not in attacking
positions?
The first rook can be placed in 64 ways
The second rook cannot be placed in the same row or the same column. So, it has 7 rows and 7
columns left for it. It can be placed in 49 ways.
But the order in which the rooks are placed is not important. So, it will be divided by 2!
Total ways = 64*49/2 = 1568
Q4. In how many ways can you place 8 rooks on a chessboard such that they are not in attacking
positions?
The first rook can be placed in 64 ways.
The second rook can be placed in 49 ways.
The eigth rook can be placed in 1 way
But the order in which the rooks are placed is not important. So, it will be divided by 8!
Total ways = 64*49*36…4*1/8! = 8! = 40320
Q5. In how many ways is it possible to choose a white square and a black square on a chess board so
that the squares must not lie in the same row or column? [CAT 2002]
The white square can be chosen in 32 ways.
If we remove the row and the column which contains the chosen white square, we will be left with 7
Rows & 7 Columns containings a total of 49 squares (24 black and 25 white). We would have
removed 15 squares (7 white and 8 black)
Required ways = 32*24 = 768
Q6 In how many ways can you go from A to B? (Shortest path)
To go from A to B, you need to make 4 right moves (R) and 6 up moves(U).
One of the possible paths could be RRRRUUUUUU
Any rearrangement of the above would give you a different shortest path from A to B.
RRRRUUUUUU can be rearranged in 10!/(4!6!) = 210 ways because among the 10 entities four Rs
are identical and 6 Us are identical.
Another way of solving this could be:
From the 10 moves that you have to make select the 4 moves which will be Right moves. This can be
done in 10C4 = 10!/(4!6!) = 210 ways
To go from A to B, you will have to follow the path APQB
A to P can be done in 4C2 = 6 ways (Select 2 right moves from a total of 4 moves)
P to Q is only one way (The path through the red rectangle)
Q to B can be done in 3C1 = 3 ways (Select 1 right move from a total of 3 moves)
Total ways = 6 x 1 x 3 = 18 ways
Total ways (if the red rectangle was not there) = 10C4 = 210
PQ is the road which has been removed. It would make all the routes which included the road PQ as
invalid.
So, all routes consisting of APQB will be invalid
A to P = 5C3 = 10
P to Q = 1
Q to B = 4C3 = 4
Invalid ways = 10 x 1 x 4 = 40
Total valid ways = 210 – 40 = 170 ways
[CAT 2008] The figure below shows the plan of a town. The streets are at right angles to each other.
A rectangular park (P) is situated inside the town with a diagonal road running through it. There is
also a prohibited region (D) in the town.
Q9. Neelam rides her bicycle from her house at A to her office at B, taking the shortest path. Then
the number of possible shortest paths that she can choose is
Let us call the road through park as MN.
The path Neelam will take is AMNB.
Neelam can go from A to M in 4C2 = 6 ways.
M to N in 1 way
N to B in 6C2 = 15 ways.
Number of possible shortest paths = 6*15 = 90
Q10. Neelam rides her bicycle from her house at A to her club at C, via B taking the shortest path.
Then the number of possible shortest paths that she can choose is
Neelam can go from A to B in 90 ways.
From B to C via N = 6 (and not via M)
From B to C via M = 7 ways
In all 90*(6+7) = 1170 ways
I hope you enjoyed this post and if you get a grid based question in CAT, you will be able to crack it.
Introduction to Probability for CAT 2013

Probability has always been a fascinating topic to teach. The pleasure that I get out of correcting silly
mistakes, which are plenty in questions based on probability can be considered sadistic by some or a
truly noble thing to do by others. I hope the percentage of the latter would be higher but I think the
percentage of the former is higher. Let me try to redeem the reputation a little bit by talking about
the basics of the topic, which most of the readers here might know but would be really important bit
for those who don’t.
Funda #1
P(A) =
Probability of an event is defined by the above formula. Now where people make mistakes is in the
understanding of the word ‘outcome’. The ‘outcomes’, which are considered for probability, have to
be equally likely in nature. They cannot be any random ‘outcomes’ of your choice. If you think this is
obvious then let me give you an exercise:
What is the probability of getting a 4 on the throw of a regular dice?
Many of you would say the answer is 1/6 because there are six possible outcomes – getting a 1 or a
2 or a 3 or a 4 or a 5 or a 6; and out of these six possible outcomes one is favorable. If that is what
you are thinking – you are right.
What do you think is wrong in my explanation if I say that the answer is ½ because there are two
possible outcomes – getting a ‘4’ and not getting a ‘4’; and out of these two possible outcomes one
is favorable. What is wrong in this? I am covering all possible outcomes. The wrong part is that the
‘outcomes’ are not equally likely.
In probability, the outcomes which are considered or counted have to be equally likely outcomes.
Funda #2
Exhaustive events are those which will cover all the possible outcomes. For example, in the throw of
a dice – getting a ‘1’, getting a prime and getting a composite are exhaustive events because if you
consider all of them together – they cover all the possible outcomes {1; Primes – 2,3,5; Composites –
4,6}
For Exhaustive Events: P(A) + P(B) +P(C)… = 1
Mutually Exclusive events are those which will have nothing in common between them. For
example, in a race A winning the race and B winning the race are mutually exclusive events. It is
possible that someone other than A or B might win the race but it is not possible that both of them
will the race.
For Mutually Exclusive Events: P(A ∩ B) = 0
Complementary events are a sub-type of exhaustive events, which have nothing in common
between them and there is no other event possible. For example, in a coin toss getting a head or
getting a tail are complementary events. For example, in case of sex of students in a class boys or
girls are complementary events. For example, in case of shooting a target hitting or missing are
complementary events.
For Complementary Events: P(A) + P(A’) = 1 & P(A ∩ A’) = 0
All Complementary Events are Exhaustive & Mutually Exclusive events.
Funda #3
Addition Rule:
P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A B)
Multiplication Rule:
P(A B) = P(A) P(B/A) = P(B) P(A/B)
For Independent Events P(A/B) = P(B) and P(B/A) = P(B)
 P(A B) = P(A).P(B)
 P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A).P(B)
Funda #4
The questions of the type when the same person tries to do something multiple times are pretty
common in tests. A good example would be when you are trying to bomb a bridge in how many
attempts the probability of the bridge getting blown would go above 80%. Or if you are an archer
trying to hit a target, what is the probability that you will hit the target 4 times out of 7. These type
of questions are primarily based on complementary events, so if the probability of one event is ‘p’;
then the probability of the other event will be ‘1 – p’
If the probability of an event occurring is P, then the probability of that event occurring ‘r’ times in
‘n’ trials is = nCr x Pr x (1-P)n-r
Funda #5
In cricket and more so in football, you might have seen the betting odds displayed on the top right /
left of the sports page. Those odds are just a way of representing the probability of a particular team
winning or losing. If the odds in favor of India in an India Vs. Australia match are 4:5; then the
probability of India winning the match is not 4/5 but 4/9. Odds do not represent favorable and total
outcomes but they give a ratio of the favorable and unfavorable outcomes.
Odds in favor =
Odds against =
I think this should suffice for an introduction to probability. I hope you liked this post and do provide
feedback and / or ideas for future posts via the comment section.
Logical Reasoning
Cubes and Matchstick Problems
‘If it was so, it might be; and if it were so, it would be; but as it isn't, it ain't. That's logic.’ –
Tweedledee in Lewis Caroll’s Through the Looking Glass.
If the above line confused you, trust me – you are not alone. Even God can vanish in a puff of logic.
To know how, you can probably jump to the end of this post. To those who choose not to skip – let
us discuss few common types of Logical Reasoning problems.
Type 1:
Cube problems: A cube is given with an edge of unit ‘N’. It is painted on all faces. It is cut into
smaller cubes of edge of unit ‘n’. How many cubes will have ‘x’ faces painted?
In these types of questions, the first thing that we need to figure out is the number of smaller cubes.
For this, we look at one particular edge of the big cube and figure out how many smaller cubes can
fit into this. It will be N/n. So, the number of smaller cubes will .
A cube has 6 faces and none of the smaller cubes will have all faces painted. As a matter of fact,
none of the smaller cubes will have even 5 or 4 faces painted. The maximum number of faces, which
will be painted on a smaller cube, will be 3. This will happen only in the case of the smaller cubes
that emerge from the corners of the big cube.
So, number of smaller cubes with 3 faces painted = 8 (Always)
For 2 faces to be painted, we will have to consider the smaller cubes that emerge from the edges of
the big cube (leaving out the corners). So, the smaller cubes on every edge will be . There are 12
edges in a cube.
So, number of smaller cubes with 2 faces painted =
For 1 face to be painted, we will have to consider the smaller cubes that emerge from the face of the
big cube (leaving out the corners and the edges). So, the smaller cubes on every face will be
. There are 6 faces in a cube.
So, number of smaller cubes with 1 face painted =
For no face to be painted, we will have to consider the smaller cubes that emerge from the inside of
the big cube (leaving out the outer surface which was painted). Imagine this as taking a knife and
cutting a slice of width ‘n’ from every face of the cube. You will be left with a smaller cube with an
edge of ‘N-2n’. Number of smaller cubes that you can make from the resulting cube is
So, number of smaller cubes with 0 face painted =
Let us take an example to elucidate this type of problem.
Eg 1: A painted cube is given with an edge of 15 cm. Smaller cubes are cut out from it with an edge
of 3 cm each. How many cubes will have 3 faces painted, 2 faces painted, 1 face painted and no face
painted.
Solution: Total number of smaller cubes = (15/5) 3 = 125
3 faces painted = 8 cubes.
2 faces painted: Consider an edge of size 15 cm. We have removed the corners that take away 3 cm
from each corner of the edge. Now our edge is of 9 cm. 3 cubes of 3 cm each can come from it.
There are 12 edges. So, there will be 3 x 12 = 36 cubes.
1 face painted: Consider a face. If we have removed 3 cm from each edge of the face, we will be left
with a square of side 9 cm or area 81 sq cm. There can be 9 smaller squares that can be formed on
that face with an area of 9 sq cm each. These 9 will be the cubes which will have 1 face painted.
There are 6 faces. So, there will be 9 x 6 = 54 cubes.
No face painted: Cut slices of 3 cm each from each face of the cube. We will be left with a smaller
cube of edge 9 cm. Number of smaller cubes that can be formed from it is (9/3) 3 = 27. So, 27 cubes
will have no faces painted.
You can use this to verify the formulas above and also note that 8 + 36 + 54 + 27 = 125. This means
that there is no need to find out all four using the formula, just find any three of them and the other
would emerge by using the total. In an exam, this might save you some valuable time.
Type 2:
Matchstick Game: You are playing a matchstick game with Mr. Bond. There are ‘n’ matchsticks on a
table. On a player’s turn, he can pick any number of matchsticks upto ‘p’ (p is typically quite smaller
than ‘n’). Whosoever picks the last matchstick loses the game. It is your turn first. How many
matchsticks should you pick (assuming that you are smart and will play to win) that you will always
win?
First remove 1 matchstick from consideration, as that would be the matchstick that Mr. Bond will
pick and lose the game.
Find out Remainder
You should pick ‘q’ matchsticks in the first turn.
After that if Mr. Bond picks ‘r’ sticks, you should pick ‘p+1-r’ sticks and you will win the game.
Once again, let us take an example.
Eg 2: There are 105 matchsticks on a table and a player can pick any number of matchsticks from 1
to 10. The person who picks the last matchstick loses the game. You are playing the game against
Mr. Bond and it is your turn first. How many matchsticks should you pick in the first turn such that
you always win the game?
Solution: You should pick Remainder matchsticks to win the game.
Let us look at few scenarios, in which you have picked 5 sticks and there are 100 sticks left on t he
table. It is Mr. Bond’s turn now.
Round ID Mr. Bond Picks Sticks Left You Pick Sticks Left
Round 1 5 100 – 5 = 95 10 + 1 – 5 = 6 95 – 6 = 89
Round 2 8 89 – 8 = 81 10 + 1 – 8 = 3 81 – 3 = 78
Round 3 7 78 – 7 = 71 10 + 1 – 7 = 4 71 – 4 = 67
Round 4 4 67 – 4 = 63 10 + 1 – 4 = 7 63 – 7 = 56
Round 5 10 56 – 10 = 46 10 + 1 – 10 = 1 46 – 1 = 45
Round 6 8 45 – 8 = 37 10 + 1 – 8 = 3 37 – 3 = 34
Round 7 1 34 – 1 = 33 10 + 1 – 1 = 10 33 – 10 = 23
Round 8 2 23 – 2 =21 10 + 1 – 2 = 9 21 – 9 = 12
Round 9 9 12 – 9 = 3 10 + 1 – 9 = 2 3– 2= 1
As only 1 stick is left, Mr. Bond will have to pick it and lose the game. I recommend, that you try out
such scenarios with a friend. Nothing validates a concept more than a real -life implementation,
especially if it is on a bet. 
For those who are still wondering – what did just happen (as I did when I first read this concept), I
suggest you pick up Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy and read about how God vanished in a puff of
logic.
Games & Tournaments
In Logical Reasoning very often we encounter problems based on games of tournaments. The first
thing that as a CAT taker you need to realize is that such tournament based format offers the
examiner a multitude of options. So, there cannot be a set formula for solving such kind of
questions. However, if you look at the CAT papers of past few years – a pattern seems to emerge.
Let us discuss couple of them.
Type 1: The questions are typically in a set where the data will be either in the standard tabular
format or a format which you would never find on Cricinfo or for that matter any other ESPN
website. The ‘different for the sake of being different’ format essentially tests a CAT taker’s ability to
infer data in newer formats.
An example of this would be:
Each diagram communicates the number of runs scored by the three top scores from India, where K,
R, S, V, and Y represent Kaif, Rahul, Saurav, Virender, and Yuvraj respectively. The % in each diagram
denotes the percentage of total score that was scored by the top three Indian scorers in that game.
You can get the complete set of questions from here.
I will not get into the detail of solving this particular set. Once you interpret the information, the
questions are really simple. The catch in this question (this type of questions) is to interpret the
given data.
Let us look at this information in a different way:
Pakistan South Africa Australia

Runs by Kaif 28 51
Runs by Rahul 49 55
Runs by Saurav 75 50
Runs by Virender 130
Runs by Yuvraj 40 87
Runs by Top 3
Top 3 as a %age of total 90% 70% 80%
Total runs
As you can see, the triangular format is no different from providing the same information to the
student in a table. It is just a little more intimidating in a pressure situation – and that intimidation is
exactly what you should avoid. With some very simple addition and calculation you will be solve this
problem set.
Bottom line: Even if it takes a couple of minutes, it is best to represent information in a format that
you are comfortable with.
Type 2: For some reason, Tennis appears to be a favorite among exam setters. Actually Tennis does
offer some very interesting possibilities – such as seeds, an unconventional scoring and the knockout
feature. Knockouts are inherent in the sport of Tennis and hence used frequently by exam setters.
Note: In a knockout tournament,
No. of matches = No. of players – 1
Let us look at few ideas related to questions on seeded players. Let’s say in a tournament there are
‘n’ players and they are seeded (ranked) from 1 to n. Typically this ‘n’ is a power of 2 like 32 or 64 or
128.
In the first round the highest seeded player plays the lowest seeded player, the second highest
seeded player plays the second lowest seeded player and so on. To put it into perspective:
Round 1 – Match 1 – Seed 1 Vs Seed n
Round 1 – Match 2 – Seed 2 Vs Seed (n-1)
Round 1 – Match 3 – Seed 3 Vs Seed (n-2)
Round 1 – Match n/2 – Seed n/2 Vs Seed n/2 + 1
In the second round, winner of Match 1 plays winner of Match n/2; winner of Match 2 plays winner
of Match n/2 – 1 and so on.
In this kind of questions, an ‘upset’ comes into the picture which essentially means that a lower
seeded plays beat a higher seeded player.
The questions are typically of the format:
Ques: Who will play match 36 in Round 1?
Ans: It will be played between the 36th highest seed and the 36th lowest seed.
The 36th lowest seed can be sometimes difficult to figure out but you can figure it out easily by
calculating (n+1) – 36.
Note: The rth match in Round will be played between Seed ‘r’ and Seed ‘n+ -r’
Ques: If there are no upsets, then in Round 2 who will play the 5th match?
Ans: One way of solving this question would be figuring out the winners of Round 1 and then figuring
out the 5th from the top and the bottom.
If there is no upset, then seed 5 will be there. The other player would be (n/2+1 – 5)
Note: If there are no upsets, then the rth match in the p th round will be played between –
Seed ‘r’ and Seed
Ques: Who will meet Seed 37 in the Quarterfinals of a tournament in which 64 players are taking
part? Other than Seed 37’s matches, there were no other upsets.
We first need to analyze which round would be the quarterfinal:
Round 1 (32 matches), Round 2 (16 matches), Round 3 (8 matches – pre-quarter), Round 4 (4
matches – quarterfinals).
In Round 1, Seed 37 must have defeated 64 + 1 – 37 = 28
In Round 2, Seed 37 played the match that Seed 28 would have played. Seed 28 would have played
against Seed 32 + 1 – 28 = Seed 5
In Round 3(pre-quarters), Seed 37 played the match that Seed 5 would have played. Seed 5 would
have played against Seed 16 + 1 – 5 = Seed 12 and won it.
In Round 4 (quarterfinals), Seed 37 would meet the player that Seed 5 would have met. Seed 5
would have met 8+1-5 = 4.
Hence, Seed 37 will meet Seed 4 in the quarterfinals.
As a matter of fact, even the above solution is not the most optimal one. Because once you realize
that Seed 37 defeated Seed 5, he would keep meeting the opponents that Seed 5 would have met.
I think I have taken enough of your time with this lengthy post but this time would be well spent if
such a question appears in CAT or some other management entrance ex am.
Games and Tournaments – 2
In my previous post, we discussed about two of the popular types of questions when it comes to
games and tournament questions. So, if you are looking for questions on new types of data
representation or questions based on seeding in a tennis tournament, probably you should read
that. However, there is another popular type of questions with respect to Games & Tournaments
and that is – Football / Hockey tournament questions in which we have to find out Goal s scores,
winners, ties, etc.
In such tournaments, all competitors play a fixed number of matches. Points are awarded for wins /
draws / losses. Then an overall ranking is decided by total points or average points per match.
Sometimes other factors such as goals scored / goals faced also come into the picture to resolves
ties in ranking.
Let us look at a question from CAT 2000. (Full set of questions here)
Question: “Sixteen teams have been invited to participate in the ABC Gold Cup cricket tournament.
The tournament was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the teams are divided into two
groups. Each group consists of eight teams, with each team playing every other team in its group
exactly once. At the end of first stage, the top four teams from each group advance to the second
stage while the rest are eliminated. The second stage comprised several rounds. A round involves one
match for each team. The winner of a match in a round advances to the next round, while the loser is
eliminated. The team that remains undefeated in the second stage is declared the winner and claims
the Gold Cup.
The tournament rules such that each match results in a winner and a loser with no possibility of a tie.
In the first stage, a team earns one point for each win and no points for a loss. At the end of the first
stage, teams in each group are ranked on the basis of total points to determine the qualifiers
advancing to the next stage. Ties are resolved by a series of complex tie-breaking rules so that
exactly four teams form each group advanced to the next stage.”
Now questions were asked on – Total number of matches, minimum number of wins required for a
team to guarantee advance (or possible advance) to next stage, maximum number of matches that a
team can win in the first stage without advancing, etc.
In first stage, teams are divided into two groups of 8 teams each. There they play a match against
everyone exactly one ie 8C2 matches in every group. So 2*8C2 = 56 matches for the first stage.
In second stage, there are 8 teams in a knockout stage. There will be one winner, so 8 – 1 = 7
So, total number of matches is 56 + 7 = 63
For a team to advance to the second stage, it should be among the top 4 in its group. Total points on
stake in a group is the same as the total number of matches which is 8C2 = 28. To guarantee
advance, it can have 3 teams with the same or more points. There can be 5 teams with 5 wins or 5
points. So, 5 wins is not good enough to ensure a birth in round 2. However, 6 wins will guarantee
its advance. This also tells us that a team might have 5 wins but still not advance.
To figure out the minimum wins required to possibly advance, let us look at the method for ‘n’
teams.
n/2 – 1 teams should win maximum no. of matches.
n/2 + 1 teams should have exactly the same number of wins.
So in this question, the top 3 teams can have a maximum of 7 + 6 + 5 = 18 points.
All other teams (5) have a combined score of 28 – 18 = 10 points. Their individual score is 2 points
each and one of these five teams will advance to second stage.
So, minimum wins required to advance is 2.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Let us look at another type of question in which we are given a table and we have to fill it. Given
below is a random table at the end of hockey tournament. For each win two points were awarded
and for a draw one point was given. We also know that the South Africa – Spain match was a draw.
No two teams have the exact same count for Win/Draw/Loss and Australia has won more matches
than Spain. Figure out the result of every match from the table given below:
Team Name Played Won Draw Lost Points

India 0 6
Pakistan 6
Australia 3
Spain 3
South Africa
Each team has played 4 matches.
A team can get a score of 6 in two ways:
3 Wins and 1 loss or 2 wins and 2 draws.
India did not lose, so it will have 2 wins and 2 draws whereas on the other hand Pakistan will have 3
wins
No. of matches played will be 5C2 = 10
The total no. of points at stake is 20. South Africa has the left-over points which is 2.
We also know that the South Africa – Spain match was a draw.
So, now our table looks like this:

India 4 2 2 0 6
Pakistan 4 3 0 1 6
Australia 4 3
Spain 4 Min(1) 3
South Africa 4 Min(1) 2
2 Points can be achieved by 1 Win, 0 Draw, 3 Loss OR 2 Draw, 2 Loss.
We know that both Spain & South Africa have at least 1 Draw. This means that South Africa’s 2
points are by 2 Draw, 2 Loss

India 4 2 2 0 6
Pakistan 4 3 0 1 6
Australia 4 3
Spain 4 Min(1) 3
South Africa 4 0 2 2 2
3 Points can be achieved by 1 Win, 1 Draw, 2 Loss OR 3 Draw, 1 Loss.
As no two teams have the same Win/Draw/Loss count, one of the above applies to Australia
whereas the other one applies to Spain. As Australia has won more matches, it will get the 1 Win, 1
Draw, 2 Loss.
Our final table will look like this:

India 4 2 2 0 6
Pakistan 4 3 0 1 6
Australia 4 1 1 2 3
Spain 4 0 3 1 3
South Africa 4 0 2 2 2
Now, let us try and analyze the match results for the 10 matches (in no special order):
Pakistan has won 3 and lost 1. Pakistan cannot win against India as India did not lose a match. So,
Match 1 – India beat Pakistan
Match 2 – Pakistan beat Australia
Match 3 – Pakistan beat Spain
Match 4 – Pakistan beat South Africa
We also know the result of South Africa Vs Spain
Match 5 – South Africa & Spain drew the match.
Spain has lost against Pakistan and it needs to draw all other matches.
Match 6 – India & Spain drew the match
Match 7 – Australia & Spain drew the match
Australia cannot draw another match as it has only 1 draw. It cannot win against India as India has
no losses. So, it must have lost against India and the win must have come against the remaining
team ie South Africa.
Match 8 – India beat Australia
Match 9 – Australia beat South Africa
The only match remaining between India & South Africa must have been a draw as India scored wins
against Pakistan and Australia.
Match 10 – India & South Africa drew the match
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Phew!! I hope that you lasted this long without actually playing the game of “Banging head against
the wall”.
Data Interpretation
Data Sufficiency
Tips for Fast and Easy Calculations
When you are competing against thousands or rather lakhs of people for a few seats, every minute
matters. These days, probably what you did in your class 10th, 12th and graduation matters more
than most things – but hey, you cannot do anything about that until someone invents a time
machine. Although it can be debated till whether it is fair / unfair / valid, etc. but I would like to
reiterate – you cannot do anything about that. So, let us concentrate on something that you can do.
You can work hard. You can do well in CAT and other exams. Here are a few tips and tricks which you
can use to calculate faster in an exam.
Calculating Squares
Type 1: Numbers ending in 5
If we remove the last digit ‘5’ from our number and are left with x, then the square will be [Product of
x and x+1]25.
115^2
First part = 11 * 12 = 132
Last part = 25
Answer = 13225
395^2
First part = 39 * 40 = 1560
Last part = 25
Answer = 156025
Type 2: Numbers close to 50 [41,59]
Let the distance of the number from 5 be ‘d’. Then the square will be [ 5+d][d^ ].
53^2
Distance from 50 = 3
First part = 25 + 3 = 28
Last part = 3^2 = 9 = 09
Answer = 2809
44^2
Distance from 50 = – 6
First part = 25 – 6 = 19
Last part = (-6)^2 = 36 = 36
Answer = 1936
Type 3: Numbers close to 100 [91,109]
Let the distance of the number ‘n’ from be ‘d’. Then the square will be [n+d][d^ ].
107^2
Distance from 100 = 7
First part = 107 + 7 = 114
Last part = 7^2 = 49
Answer = 11449
98^2
Distance from 100 = – 2
First part = 98 – 2 = 96
Last part = (-2)^2 = 4 = 04
Answer = 9604
Type 4: Numbers ending in 1,4,6,9
Calculate the square of the nearest multiple of 5. Add or subtract (Num + Multiple of 5) from it.
71^2
Nearest multiple of 5 = 70
Square of the nearest multiple of 5 = 70^2 = 4900
Number + Multiple of 5 = 70 + 71 = 141
Answer = 4900 + 141 = 5041
134^2
Nearest multiple of 5 = 135
Square of nearest multiple of 5 = 135^2 = [13*14][25] = 18225
Number + Multiple of 5 = 134 + 135 = 269
Answer = 18225 – 269 = 17956
Now some of you might be thinking, “Where am I going to use this? This will come in handy in very
few situations.” Well, I agree with you. Prima facie, it does look like something which might not
come in handy on the first day or even the first week. But if you spend 10 minutes practicing the
above tips, I can guarantee that you will save lot more time during your preparation. And if you can
save some time during the exam, well that is a big fat bonus.
Having said that, given below is something that you can start using from today.
Multiplying Two Digit Numbers
In your normal way of multiplication, when you multiply 32 with 41, this is what you normally do:
For calculating faster, this is what you should do:
Please – no jokes about my handwriting or the color combination.
The idea here is instead of two steps, you should calculate the answer in just one step. Consider your
answer as a combination of three parts
Last digit = Product of the last digits (may generate a carry, does not in this case) = 2 * 1 = 2
Second last digit = Cross product of the digits (may generate a carry, does in this case) = 3 * 1 + 2 * 4
= 3 + 8 = 11 = 1 written down and 1 carry
First part = Product of first digits (might include previous carry, does include in this case) = 4 * 3 + 1 =
13
Answer = 1312
Here are couple more examples to illustrate the idea further.(PTO)
Hopefully, you will save some time using these tips, if not in the exam then at least in your
preparation.
Basics of Data Interpretation - Approximation
Data Interpretation questions typically have large amount of data given in the form of tables, pie
charts, line graphs or some non-conventional format. The questions are calculation heavy and
typically test your approximation abilities. A very large number of these questions check your ability
to compare or calculate fractions and percentages. If you sit down to actually calculate the answer,
you would end up spending more time than required. Here are few ideas that you can use for
approximation.
Funda 1 – Calculating (Approximating) Fractions
When trying to calculate (approximate) a fraction ‘p/q’, add a value to the denominator and a
corresponding value to the numerator before calculating (approximating).
Example: What is the value of
Now for the denominator, either we take it close to 750 or to 800. Let’s see how it happens in both
cases. Clearly the answer is between 2 and 3, so for adding values / subtracting values from the
denominator or the numerator, I will consider a factor of 2.5
Case 1: 762 is 12 above 750, so I will subtract 12 from the denominator. Keeping the factor of 2.5 in
mind, I will subtract 25 from the numerator.
My new fraction is
Actual answer is 2.34776.
As you can see, with very little effort involved in approximation, we got really close to the actual
answer.
Case 2: 762 is 38 below 800, so I will add 38 to the denominator. Keeping the factor of 2.5 in mind, I
will add 95 to the numerator.
My new fraction is
As you can see, even this is close to the answer. The previous one was closer because the magnitude
of approximation done in the previous case was lesser.
Funda 2 – Comparing Fractions
If you add the same number to the numerator and denominator of a proper fraction, the value of the
proper fraction increases.
If you add the same number to the numerator and denominator of a proper fraction, the value of the
improper fraction decreases.
Note: You can remember this by keeping in mind that
Example: Arrange the following in increasing order
Let’s first compare 117/229 & 128/239.
If we add 11 to the numerator and the denominator of the first proper fraction, the resulting proper
fraction would be 128/240, which will be bigger than the original.
We know that 128/240 is smaller than 128/239, as the latter has a lower base.
So, 117/229 < 128/240 < 128/239
 117/229 < 128/239
Now let’s compare 117/229 and 223/449.
If we add 11 to the numerator and the denominator of the second proper fraction, the resulting
proper fraction would be 234/460, which will be bigger than the original.
If we double the numerator and denominator of the first proper fraction, the resulting proper
fraction would be 234/458.
We know that 234/460 is smaller than 234/458, as the latter has a lower base.
So, 223/449 < 234/460< 234/458
 223/449 < 117/229
Using the above two results, we can say that 223/449 < 117/229 < 128/239
Note: This question can be solved much simply by just looking at the numbers and approximately
comparing them with ½. I used this long explanation to illustrate the funda given above.
#Given below are few other shortcuts that might come in handy in calculations.
Funda 3 – Percentage Growth
If the percentage growth rate is ‘r’ for a period of ‘t’ years, the overall growth rate is approximately:
Note: Derived from the Binomial theorem, this approximation technique works best, when the value
of r is small. If the rate goes above 10%, then this approximation technique gives bad results. Also, if
the rate is 5% then r = 0.05; if the rate is 7.2% then r = 0.072.
Funda 4 – Comparing Powers
Given that natural numbers a > b > 1, a b will always be less than b a
Note: There are only two exceptions to this funda. I hope someone in the comments will point them
out.
As I end this post, I am also wondering if “Approximation of Dreams… Oops! Data” would have been
a better title.
Introduction to Data Sufficiency
Data Sufficiency questions often involve very simple calculations. This does not mean that the
questions are simple. It just means that the chances to make conceptual mistakes and / or silly
mistakes are a little higher than usual. You will need to pay attention to detail in such questions.
In Data Sufficiency, you need to figure out whether or not the data given in the question /
statements is good enough to find out a unique answer. Once again – is the data enough to find out
a unique answer?
Please note that in Data Sufficiency:
 You do not need to find out the answer

 You need to find out whether or not you can find out the answer
A Data Sufficiency question / question set will contain the following:
 Instructions – they may vary set per set

 Questions (with or without data)
 Two statements (with data – may or may not be sufficient)
A typical set of Instructions (4 options):
1. If one of the statements alone is sufficient

2. If both the statements alone are sufficient
3. If both statements together are sufficient but neither is sufficient alone
4. If both statements together are not sufficient
Let us look at a few simple questions to understand the concept in a better way. Please note that
these questions are way too simple to be asked in an exam like CAT, but they are necessary for
understanding the idea.
Q1: What is the value of ‘x’, given that it is an integer?
Statement A: x < 10
Statement B: x >8
By combining both statements, I can say that x lies between 8 and 10. The only integer between 8
and 10 is 9. So my answer should be Option 3
WRONG!
Nowhere in the question it is mentioned that x is an integer / natural number. Until and unless that
is specified, we cannot uniquely determine the value of ‘x’. It can take any value from 8 to 10 {eg:
8.1, 8,2, 9.999, etc.}
So, the correct answer would be Option 4
Q2 What is the value of ‘x + y’?
Statement A: 3x + 7y = 10
Statement B: 2x + 9y = 8
Two equations, two variables. I can solve the equations to find out the values of x & y and hence, I
can find out the value of ‘x+y’ Option 3
Q3 What is the value of ‘x + y’?
Statement A: 3x – 7y = 10
Statement B: 14y = 6x + 19
By combining the two statements I get – Two equations, two variables. I can solve the equations to
find out the values of x & y. Hence, I can find out the value of ‘x+y’ Option 3
WRONG!
These two equations represent a set of parallel lines. They are inconsistent with each other. I will
not be able to determine the values of x & y. Hence, I cannot find out the value of ‘x+y’ Option 4
Q4 What is the value of x?
Statement A: x^2 – 5x + 6 = 0
Statement B: x^2 – 6x + 8 = 0
From the first statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 3. I do not have a unique answer.
From the second statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 4. I do not have a unique answer.
After combining the two statements, I get the unique value of x as 2. Option 3
From the first statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 3. I do not have a unique answer.
From the second statement, I get the value of x as 4. I have a unique answer so there is no need to
combine the two statements. Option 1
From the first statement, I get the value of x as 3. I have a unique answer.
From the second statement, I get the value of x as 4. I have a unique answer.
I am getting a unique answer from both the statements individually. Option 2
Now some of you might be thinking that we have got a different answer from both the statements
and so the answer is not unique. Well, that thinking is incorrect. We have to figure out whether or
not the given data was sufficient. When I am looking at Statement A, I am just looking at Statement
A. If I can get a unique answer from Statement A, I will not even bother with what is going on in
Statement B.
Q7 Is ‘x’ a prime number?
Statement B: x^2 – 10x + 24 = 0
From the first statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 3.
From the second statement, I get the values of x as 4 & 6.
But that is not what the question is. The question is whether or not x is a prime number. My answers
should not be values of ‘x’, they should be ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ or ‘Can’t Say’.
So, let us calculate again.
From the first statement, I get the values of x as 2 & 3. So, x is a prime number. I can answer the
question and my answer is YES.
From the second statement, I get the values of x as 4 & 6. So, x is not a prime number. I can answer
the question and my answer is NO.
I am getting a unique answer from both the statements individually. Option 2
I hope you would be comfortable with Data Sufficiency questions now. I would like to repeat that
the questions mentioned above are on the simpler side and probably you should practice some real
Data Sufficiency question to get a hang of the topic.

Math Books

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Math Books

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Math Books

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Complied by: www.handakafunda.

com Best of Handa ka funda

Maxima and Minima in Quadratic and other polynomials

Basics of Time,Speed and Distance

Permutation &Combination - Fundamental principles of counting

Cubes and Matchstick Problems

Tips for easy and fast calculations

Eg 1.1 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 9

Eg 1.2 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 99

Eg 1.3 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 999

Eg 1.1 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 11

Eg 1.2 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 101

Eg 1.3 Check if a number (N = abcdefgh) is divisible by 1001

Funda 3: Osculator / seed number method

For checking divisibility by ‘p’,

Step 1: Figure out an equation such that

Eg: Check whether 131537 is divisible by 19 or not.

 19*1 = 10*2 – 1 (Seed number is +2)

 Number of factors of a given number

Here a,b,c… are prime factors of N

& p,q,r … are the powers of the prime factors of N.

In such a case the number of factors of N are given by the formula

Try to answer these questions:

Your answers for the above questions should be:

It means that you have: 2,2,2,2,2 && 3,3,3,3 && 5,5

So, the total number of factors = 6 x 5 x 3 = 90.

So, the total number of choices that you have now is 5 x 5 x 3 = 75

Here a,b,c… are prime factors of N

& p,q,r … are the powers of the prime factors of N.

In such a case the sum of factors of N are given by the formula

Sum of all factors

Sum of all the even factors

Sum of all the odd factors

Sum of all the factors divisible by 12

Dealing with Factorials

Some of the factorials that might speed up your calculation are:

0! = 1; 1! = 1; 2! = 2; 3! = 6; 4! = 24; 5! = 120; 6! = 720; 7! = 5040.

Funda 1: Rightmost non-zero digit of n! or R(n!)

R(n!) = Last Digit of [ 2a x R(a!) x R(b!) ]

Eg 1.1: What is the rightmost non-zero digit of 37! ?

 R (37!) = Last Digit of [ 27 x R (7!) x R (2!) ]

Eg 1.2: What is the rightmost non-zero digit of 134! ?

 R (134!) = Last Digit of [ 226 x R (26!) x R (4!) ]

 R (134!) = Last Digit of [ 4 x 4 x 4 ] = 4

Funda 2: Power of a prime ‘p’ in a factorial (n!)

Eg 2.1: What is the highest power of 7 that divides 1342!

 Power of 7 = 191 + 27 + 3 = 221

Eg 2.2: What is the highest power of 6 that divides 134! ?

Eg 2.3: What is the highest power of 9 that divides 134! ?

Highest power of 9 that divides 134! is 31.

Funda 3: Number of ending zeroes in a factorial (n!)

Eg 3.1: What is the number of ending zeroes in 134! ?

Basic Idea of Remainders

Funda 1: Basic idea of remainders can be used to solve complicated problems.

Example 1: Find out the remainder when 2525 is divided by 7.

Example 2: Find out the remainder when is divided by 7.

We know that 43 gives a remainder of 1, when divided by 7.

So, if we have 43k, it will give a remainder of 1 when divided by 7

If we have 43k+1 , it will give a remainder of 4 when divided by 7

 191 = 102 – 1 (Seed number is +2)