What factors influence the sustainability of a salmon fishery, and how

can regions increase positive factors to benefit the sustainability of

salmon fisheries across the world?

Shea Davis

Senior Project Advisor: Madison Neukirch

Abstract
Salmon are important to riverine environments, but they are at risk of extinction in many areas of
the world. Salmon provide vital nutrients to these riverine environments, important cultural and
subsistence practices for many indigenous groups, and create a multi-billion dollar economy
around the world. This thesis will examine the main factors driving salmon population declines
and some of the connections between them, then look into the solutions present and some
proposed for the future. This research was collected partially from surveys of salmon populations
in comparison to historical events impacting them, such as the creation of a dam. There are many
variables affecting sustainability around salmon populations, but dams, pollution, and
overfishing seem to have the biggest impact on historic declines, especially throughout the 20th
century. Salmon farms also appear to affect wild stocks, spreading disease and contaminating
waterways with their waste and parasitic sea lice. When examining future impacts, climate
change will be the most devastating factor determining salmon sustainability. Warming
temperatures in the oceans and rivers will inhibit salmon navigation as well as food availability.
The effects of dams, salmon farms, hatcheries, and fisheries on salmon population declines
indicate that steps need to be taken to further protect salmon and increase sustainability for wild
stocks, aquaculture, and river systems.

12th Grade Humanities

Animas High School
March 1st Spring 2024
 Part 1: Introduction

In the Pacific Northwest, excluding Alaska, salmon populations have declined by nearly

90%. This decline comes from a wide variety of factors and it is important to note that

environmental issues, including issues surrounding sea going animals, are multi-layered and

complex. Salmon are vital to numerous systems and cultures across the world; they are important

culturally and historically to indigenous groups in the U.S and Canada, economically to the rural

northern of both countries, and ecologically to the environments of the Northern Hemisphere.

Indigenous and First Nations people in North America have long standing traditions around

salmon harvests and center many spiritual practices around salmon. With declines in salmon,

indigenous groups' ability to follow traditional practices has been restricted, further isolating

them from their historic cultures and practices. In addition to the historical and cultural

significance, salmon support a thriving global economy consisting of canneries, fisheries,

aquaculture farms, and consumer trade. In total, salmon build a multi-billion dollar global

industry, employing thousands of people.

Meanwhile, the survival of salmon affects the health of northern ecosystems and riverine

environments just as drastically as it affects the global industry. Salmon are part of a cycle

between land and ocean because of their unique anadromous life cycle. Salmon hatch and live

their first years in the river, this amount varies depending on the species, slowly growing big

enough to move into the ocean. In the ocean, there is an increased abundance of food for them to

grow fat on before returning to their natal streams to spawn. This defines the anadromous life

cycle: transitioning from fresh to salt water and back again. After spawning, salmon die and their

carcasses provide the nutrients that were collected from the ocean to the surrounding riverine and

terrestrial environment (Flores et al. 551). This nutrient exchange vitally supports a healthy
ecosystem by providing a key food source for many animals, such as bears, eagles, and species

of shark. The survivability of salmon has been influenced by warming waters, anthropogenic

(human) effects on rivers, and humans farming and fishing practices. To mitigate these effects

and support salmon sustainability, regions need to face overfishing and illegal fishing practices,

the removal of dams, and the impacts of salmon farms and hatcheries on local wild stocks.

Part II: Historical Context and Background Knowledge

Humans have been fishing salmon for millenia, harvesting the wild runs coursing through

the rivers of Europe, North America, and Northern Asia. Salmon have long been sought after as

high quality marine protein, leading to the development of some of the largest and most lucrative

fisheries in the world. North Western Europeans were some of the first to industrialize the

harvesting of salmon, using large scale netting and spearing to catch large amounts of fish.

However, the rise of the industrial revolution contributed to a sharp decline in European salmon

populations. Industrialization destroyed salmon populations, with ramifications that extend far

and wide, even into the modern day: “Industrialization has taken a heavy toll of salmon, even at

considerable distances from industrial centers. Atmospheric pollution emanating from the

industrial valleys of northern Europe and the British Midlands is carried by winds to generate

acid rains over Norway” (Joyner 1). Consequently, salmon populations in Europe were

decimated, especially around France and England, forcing both countries to seek out new fish

reserves in North America. In his book, Salmon, Mark Kurlansky, an American fisheries

journalist who studies salmon extensively, states that many Native and conservation groups

wonder “why the Europeans, having failed in Europe and failed again in the East Coast of North

America, would come to the West intent on making the same mistakes” (152). After depleting
European stocks, fishermen traveled to North America where indigenous people had sustainably

harvested salmon for centuries. There they found a wealth of salmon, running in quantities they

had rarely seen in Europe. This quickly sparked the foundation of New England’s historic

salmon fishery and a tradition of giving the president of the United States the first salmon caught

on the Penobscot River in Maine each year. This tradition did not last as the healthy catches

enjoyed by the early colonists in New England slowly waned, until fewer than a thousand salmon

returned every year (Kurlansky 153).

The introduction and popularization of canning in the early 19th century further impacted

fisheries. On the West Coast of the United States a parallel fishery was emerging, albeit at a

slower pace than the fisheries in New England. This delayed start and slow rise may be a major

factor in the continuation of modern salmon runs in the West. Before 1864 the majority of

salmon were salted and shipped to Hawaii from salmon fisheries in California and Oregon.

However, salted salmon spoiled quickly and did not last as long as other foods on long journeys.

While salting extended the shelf-life of a salmon, as compared to the fresh fish, the introduction

of canning was a game changer. With its incredibly long and stable storage-life salmon

merchants could send their goods across the world. In 1864 a trio of brothers established the first

cannery in the West on the Sacramento River. New England rivers no longer contained enough

salmon to keep up with the demands of canneries, so there was a push for greater reliance on the

West (Kurlansky 180). Fishermen followed the salmon industry to the West and immigrants from

Eastern Asia worked in the canneries, usually under near indentured contracts. The rise of

canneries in the West, coupled with the California gold rush, created a boom in the West Coast’s

economy. With this economic incentive it took just 3 years to overfish the once abundant salmon

runs of California and deplete the Sacramento River of salmon, forcing the canning companies to
move north. This canning has continued to move north, now primarily located in Alaska and

parts of the Pacific Northwest. Even in the 21st century, canned salmon is the most popular

product created from Pacific salmon.

For centuries, salmon have been used for tribal harvests by indigenous peoples, though

this practice has been greatly diminished in the modern day. Historically, indigenous tribes were

able to sustain themselves on the salmon runs of the Pacific Northwest, but by the late 1800’s

colonization had forced them off their traditional lands, leaving them unable to manage the

salmon they had sustainably fished for generations. To make matters worse, a quickly growing

West Coast population required a solution for an increasing need for electricity. To meet this

demand, politicians and engineers turned to the rich riverine environment that cuts through much

of Washington, Oregon, and California to build hydroelectric dams. Dams provide 67.6% of

Washington’s electrical needs today and are beneficial for flood control, recreation, and

transportation. However, they also hinder the migration of salmon and other riverine animals

(West Coast Regional Office). As of 2024, there are currently 8,780 dams spread out between

Idaho, Washington, and Oregon, creating thousands of reservoirs and artificial waterways

(Pacific Northwest Region). The competing priorities of power supply, fishery health is a central

debate in understanding anthropogenic causes of ecological sustainability.

One solution may be focusing on sustainable development, a term coined in 1972 at the

first U.N. Conference on the Human Environment. In this conference, the idea of maintaining the

current environment for future generations came into focus and continues to today. Since this

first meeting, global discussion of sustainability has not ceased. Many scientists and

environmentalists frame sustainable development around the pillars of sustainability:

environmental, social, and economic benefits. Environmental sustainability revolves around

maintaining natural resources for future generations, while maintaining current qualities of life.

Social sustainability centers around how humans interact with each other and how more

equitable societies can be built. Economic sustainability focuses on economic growth and the

conditions needed for future generations to participate in similar, if not better, economies. The

most important pillars for salmon sustainability are environmental and economic because salmon

are an environmental resource and create a large economic output, providing jobs for thousands

across the northern hemisphere. The Alaska salmon industry, for example, supports $720 million

in economic revenue each year. Maintaining a sustainable harvest is economically, and

environmentally important to the state. creates a massive economy (Vincent-Lang). In fact,

article 8, section 4 of the Alaska Constitution states that, “fish, forests, wildlife, grasslands, and

all other replenishable resources belonging to the State shall be utilized, developed, and

maintained on the sustained yield principle, subject to preferences among beneficial uses” (A.K.

Const.). Alaska is the only state with sustainability written into their constitution. Alaska’s

emphasis on environmental protection is a result of historic over extraction of this precious

resource. Salmon in other areas of the world are not protected or thought of in the same way.

Both the economic and environmental systems that support healthy salmon populations are at

risk across the planet, threatened by the numerous factors, including pollution, farming, a

warming planet, and anthropogenic encroachment on salmon rivers, which are discussed in the

following sections.
 Part III: Research and Analysis

Dams

A single dam blocking off a river can result in a 6% increase in mortality among

migrating salmon (Stevens et al. 1804). Many salmon rivers across the country have 5 or more

dams, and many of the biggest salmon rivers, such as the Columbia in Oregon, have dozens, the

Columbia specifically has upwards of 470 (Columbia Basin Trust). Dams create a dramatic

decrease in salmon survivability across the world, but their effects are most prevalent on the

West Coast of the United States. The Pacific Northwest, comprising Idaho, Washington, and

Oregon, contains the most rivers of any region in the contiguous United States. This lends itself

to be the perfect environment for hydroelectric power. Currently the majority of this region is

relying on hydroelectricity for their power, creating an incredibly large demand for dams and

other such methods of hydroelectric power generation. Dams damage salmon populations in

multiple ways, but the primary methods are blockages, interferences with salmon migration, and

the dewatering of salmon redds (nests).

The massive Columbia River is one of the largest salmon rivers in the contiguous United

States, but it, and many other rivers, have challenges around blockage, migration, and the

dewatering of spawning beds, or redds. The Columbia River faces a number of problems

surrounding the sustainability of its salmon. These problems include general blockage of rivers,

dewatering of redds, and mortality caused by hydroelectric turbines. The Columbia used to

possess one of the continental U.S’s largest salmon runs, supporting hundreds of thousands, if

not millions, of salmon every year. These fish nourished a complex web of riverine ecosystems

and were foundational in many indigenous cultural and subsistence practices. Upriver
ecosystems are starved of resources without salmon. One of the most impactful consequences of

salmon failing to return to their natal streams is the reduction of nutrients for plant life in the

area. This can reduce the health of many inland forests and cause habitat degradation. The first

dams on the Columbia came about during the Great Depression, created from work programs put

out by the government to stabilize the economy and provide people with jobs. Numerous dams

followed and proceeded to block off most of the prime spawning grounds of the salmon there.

Almost all of the traditional spawning sites of salmon are locked behind Oregon’s dams. On the

entirety of the Columbia there is only one wild spawning ground left (Harnish et al. 603). Along

the Columbia River: “Hydroelectric development has inundated much of the spawning habitat

historically used by fall Chinook salmon… As such, the Hanford Reach contains the only

remaining substantial mainstem spawning area for fall Chinook salmon in the Columbia River”

(Harnish et al. 603). When a dam blocks migrating salmon, it prevents them from reaching the

stream they spawned in, so they cannot reproduce. To keep salmon populations healthy “it is

important to provide safe, swift passage past dams for juveniles traveling to the ocean and for

adults migrating back to their spawning grounds” (West Coast Regional Office). Dams can catch

migrating adults in their turbines or cause them to burn precious energy and calories attempting

to get around them. Additionally, when salmon migrations are slowed by dams and fish remain

in the open water for longer periods, they are more vulnerable to predation. Young salmon are

even more devastated by the effects of dams.

Whereas migrating salmon can move around dams in some instances, dams can cause

near total mortality in juvenile salmon. Dams cause lower water levels, leaving spawning redds

dewatered and exposed, leading to high mortality rates among larval salmonids. Dewatering

occurs when changes in discharge from upstream dams decreases, leaving salmon redds above
the waterline. According to Harnish et al, “Fluctuations in discharge that occur shortly after the

spawning period can dewater nests, resulting in mortality of eggs and larval fish” (602). This can

fortunately be controlled, but requires dam operators to release a consistent amount of water

throughout the year. Unfortunately, this is difficult as certain periods of time have less water

flow, resulting in dams holding back more water to continue generating electricity in the dry

season. This also leads to dewatering and decreased flow in rivers, further harming the salmon of

the Pacific Northwest.

In contrast to the West Coast, dams on the Eastern Coast of the United States are decades

older and more ingrained. Industrial development in the East was far more wide-spread than in

the West. Dams block off historic Atlantic salmon spawning grounds and, it can be extrapolated

that dewatering is also an issue, but the majority of research in the East has focused on juvenile

and adult salmon because of their hatchery reliance. The Eastern U.S has had a large drop in

salmon populations, and scientists have estimated “that up to 37% of the annual loss of hatchery

smolts was attributed directly to dams” (Stevens et al. 1803). The data presented here shows that

salmon are at direct impact from dams and other such barriers in the East as well as the West.

Young/juvenile salmon (smolts) find great difficulty in traversing rivers crisscrossed with dams.

This is important because salmon lay a large number of eggs, then die, leaving their carcasses to

nurture the river system around their young. After they hatch, very few young salmon make it to

adulthood, with the majority dying in the rivers of their birth. This is natural, many fish take the

same gamble, hoping enough of their young will survive to reproduce if they lay enough eggs.

The eggs will be eaten by predators, the juveniles will die from birds and other fish, and some

salmon will become prey once they reach the ocean. Enough always returned to reestablish the

next generation. When dams are involved, less salmon than is needed to reestablish the
population return, causing steep declines. In On the Origin of Species, Charles Dawin states that,

“a large stock of individuals of the same species, relative to the number of its enemies, is

absolutely necessary for its preservation” (70). This is particularly relevant to salmon in the East.

Dams lower their survival rate, causing fewer and fewer salmon to return to spawn, thus causing

an overall decline where there is not a large enough stock of individuals to preserve its

population, especially relative to their most prevalent enemy, humans. Along the Penobscot

River in Maine “The lowest survival was from the site in the East Branch with 162 km migration

distance and five dams encountered”, whereas “The highest survival was from a lower Penobscot

site with 9 km migration distance and no dams encountered” (Stevens et al. 1800). This data

shows that salmon are at risk in areas with more than one dam. The unfortunate reality of this is

that the majority of salmon rivers and streams contain more than one dam. The most effective

way to aid salmon recovery is to remove these dams to increase self-sustaining wild stocks and

improve greater riverine conditions for the entire ecosystem (Kurlansky 232).

Alaska is an outlier in the U.S, due to the fact that the state has very few (roughly 184)

dams. Though many of these include small-scale run-of-the-river hydroelectric systems (2021

Alaska Infrastructure Report Card). Alaska has been able to achieve necessary salmon

escapements for decades, allowing as many fish as are needed to return to the rivers before

allowing commercial fishermen to catch those that remain. The state has been conscious of its

impact on wild salmon stocks since statehood in 1959, and has preserved, if not increased, its

wild salmon runs. This is in part due to high restrictions on commercial salmon fishing, but also

their low population and industrialisation levels. Compared with the Pacific Northwest and East

coast, Alaska has a massive advantage, its isolation. Alaska is largely underdeveloped and

sparsely populated. They do not require as many dams as the rest of the Pacific Northwest, so
their salmon are able to traverse their natal streams more easily. Having no dams on a river can

result in a roughly 89% survival rate of juvenile salmon, whereas adding just one can bring that

number to as low as 68% (Stevens et al. 1804). In areas with more dams, less salmon survive, so

it is reasonable that Alaska possesses the most Pacific salmon of any region of the U.S. This is

also because the state has the sustainability of their wild salmon stocks written into their

constitution, highlighting it as a keystone belief in their legislation. The state’s commitment to

sustainability prevents the same kind of damage that has happened in the contiguous U.S from

occurring, including the damming of rivers on an industrial scale.

Pollution

In addition to dams impacting salmon, humans have decimated salmon populations in

other ways. Pollution is one of the biggest issues affecting salmon stocks. This pollution comes

from industry, mining, and logging. Polluted waterways appear to be one of the biggest drivers of

salmon declines across the world. Pollution, as in some kind of contaminate or similar effect in

unnatural amounts, can immediately cause the mortality of nearly an entire generation of salmon,

usually in their larval and juvenile stages. A major challenge is that conservationists and humans

observing the impact of pollution on salmon may not know of declines for 2 or 3 years because

of the salmon's unique life cycle. Salmon are most susceptible to pollution when living in their

natal streams, further emphasizing the need to improve riverine conditions. One cause of

pollution can come from runoff of infrastructure and agriculture inland. The report, How Toxic

Runoff Affects Pacific Salmon & Steelhead, created by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), states that “roadways and parking lots are impervious and accumulate a

mixture of contaminants, including metals (copper, nickel, zinc, cadmium, etc.);

petroleum-derived compounds from oil, grease, and vehicle exhaust; and detergents, among

others.” During large storms, common in the Pacific Northwest, these toxins can runoff into local

waterways compromising the health of salmon. Along with harming salmon directly, chemicals

can increase mortality among aquatic insects and other invertebrates, decreasing the food supply

for many aquatic species (How Toxic Runoff Affects Pacific Salmon). Agricultural practices can

also cause devastating runoff resulting from the use of pesticides, these include substances such

as insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, which “can also contaminate runoff and compromise

the health of watersheds” (How Toxic Runoff Affects Pacific Salmon). Many of these chemicals

have negative health impacts for salmon. Petroleum and pesticide compounds can cause declines

in salmon immune system health, whereas petroleum is also known to decrease growth in

juvenile salmon, further reducing their survival rate (How Toxic Runoff Affects Pacific Salmon).

Unlike the increased use of harmful chemicals, detrimental practices like mining and logging

have become less common, but their effects can still be seen.

Mining and logging has become less common in many of the northern, developed

countries, where salmon live. Mining has a disastrous effect of creating massive amounts of mine

tailings, toxic remains of ore extraction full of heavy metals and other contaminants. People have

noticed the impacts of mining on salmon populations and the greater environment for centuries,

but the economic benefits of mining outweighed understanding of the importance of healthy

ecosystems, and was not stopped. In the 1800s it was common knowledge that mining was

dangerous for California farmers as it made the Central Valley less fertile, so “in 1884 the

California Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals granted an injunction to stop the mining practices in

order to protect agriculture. Fish did not need to be protected but farming did. By then, it was too

late to save the salmon anyway” (Kurlansky 177). Though these logging and mining practices
are less common, they are not altogether absent; many areas of Siberia are still being mined for

precious metals, spilling contaminates into the waterways of the north western reach of the

Pacific salmon population. In Alaska the Army Corps of Engineers recently declared Pebble

Mine to be detrimental to the surrounding wildlife and environment. Continuation of the mine’s

development could have resulted in the mortality of millions of Pacific salmon, crippling the

Bristol Bay salmon fishery, the largest salmon fishery in the world.

In addition to mining affecting salmon, the practices of logging and paper milling also

crippled salmon in rivers like the Penobscot in Maine and the Columbia in Oregon. On the East

Coast paper mills created waves of sawdust. This sawdust from East Coast paper mills collected

on the surface of New England’s rivers, choking them and blocking the sun from reaching algae

and other plants that feed aquatic insects (Kurlansky 194). This caused a chain reaction of death,

lessening food supplies for salmon in the area. On the West Coast logging practices followed the

example of their East Coast predecessors, and sawmills were set up along rivers like the

Colombia. According to Mark Kurlansky, “Loggers moved their logs down the river by erecting

what was called a ‘splash dam.’ … The logs were stockpiled in this pool and when the water was

high, the dam was taken down, causing huge logs to race downstream stripping the riverbeds”

(195). Splash dams ripped up the spawning habitat of Pacific salmon along the Columbia River

and has, in part, led to the current low state of Columbia River salmon populations. Many of the

trees logged were taken near the banks of the rivers, which was useful for the loggers because

they could fell the trees into the river for easy transportation and wood was very high quality, but

disastrous for salmon. Salmon, and the entire river, rely on these riverside trees for survival.

Erosion is kept in check by trees’ root systems holding soil, and salmon use the shade and roots

to protect themselves while growing in their natal streams (Kurlansky 194). Logging has
decreased in many areas of the Pacific Northwest, but the effects of the industry are still felt to

this day. Many of the old growth trees vital to keeping riverine ecosystems healthy have not

grown back, resulting in even greater declines of salmon habitat in rivers. This can then affect

how salmon behave in the ocean and whether or not they can complete their life-cycles,

providing life to ocean and riverine environments and salmon fisheries.

Overfishing

The second half of a salmon's life cycle occurs in the open ocean. In this stage of life they

are less likely to be affected by influences like pollutants, large scale predation, and dams. The

dangers they face here are predation from marine animals like orcas, sharks, seals, other fish, and

predominantly humans. Overfishing has decimated fish populations around the world since the

advent of the industrial revolution. Since then, numerous fish species have been overfished to

extinction; This predominantly happened and is happening in the North Atlantic where the

industrial giants of France, the U.K., the U.S., and Canada fish. Despite this history, there are

solutions present in modern legislation and in historical practices of indigenous Americans to

combat industrial methods of fishing.

The industrial revolution gave rise to new methods of fishing, including steam powered

ships that allowed fishermen to travel further and catch more. The most dangerous invention of

industrial fishing was large scale trawling. This practice has a boat pull a large net behind it,

collecting large amounts of fish. Unfortunately, it also collects massive amounts of other species

that were not being targeted. This is called bycatch, and it has resulted in the unintentional

overfishing of numerous species around Europe and North America. In Alaska trawling for

pollock led to substantial bycatch of Alaskan king salmon populations. In the early 2000s,
“Chinook salmon bycatch increased substantially and created a heightened awareness… and

eventually led to revised management measures imposed on. the [pollock] fishery beginning in

2011” (Ianelli et al. 2). Bycatch was an issue and a large driver of salmon declines, but in recent

years, the fishery and management around it have been updated, allowing for more sustainability

around Alaska’s salmon. In the modern day “while bycatch does reduce the total number of

potentially surviving fish, it does not appear to be the primary driver of declining salmon returns

to the Yukon River basin” (Cunningham et al 4401). This is not to say that bycatch is no longer a

problem, but it has begun to be managed better. Bycatch is often noted as a main driver of a fish

species decline, but in reality, other anthropogenic impacts have a more devastating impact.

Trawling also caused issues because the practice could catch extremely large amounts of fish and

the nets were drug at depths that many reefs and delicate fish species were destroyed, sometimes

without ever being discovered. East coast trawlers were used for large scale harvesting of salmon

as well as herring, cod, and haddock. The advent of freezers soon after allowed salmon to be

transported inland and stored for longer periods, creating an increased demand for the fish. All of

this compiled to the detriment of salmon, leading to the near extinction of the wild stocks in

Europe and the East Coast of the U.S. In the U.S the fishing industry depleted the majority of

wild stocks of salmon in the ocean, with canning and the increased demand for the fish as a

prime source for this decline. Alone overfishing may not have been as big of an issue as it

became, seeing as there was little risk of juvenile mortality or habitat loss from salmon

fishermen, but in tandem with other problems like dams and pollutants, overfishing only

exacerbated the issue. Instead of learning from their mistakes, salmon fisheries simply moved to

the West when the Eastern salmon runs ran dry. Kurlansky noted, “eventually canning would

switch from Atlantic to Pacific fish because Atlantic stocks could no longer sustain the demands
of canneries” (180). This is important because at this time many of those in power believed

nature could never run out of resources and the salmon would simply come back, if they did not

then it was divine retribution. The mentality of infinite consumption lasted for decades, leading

to steep declines of Pacific salmon after the crash of Atlantic stocks. One of the most interesting

pieces of overfishing on the West Coast is that “there is evidence that in many areas of the West

Coast, the Native Americans had annual catches as great as or greater than today’s Northwest

fishermen, but managed the fishery so that they did not deplete the stock” (Kurlansky 154).

Indigenous practices resulted in higher yields while maintaining salmon populations. This is a

perfect example of sustainable yield, where indigenous practices were able to maintain catches

year after year, perhaps even increasing them, all the while sustaining their environment.

Indigenous groups were able to have an abundant salmon catch while not overfishing.

In addition to overfishing, there is the risk of illegal fishing practices. When overfishing

becomes apparent in a region, governments tend to create legislation to stop it. Unfortunately,

this has not been as effective as many would like; In Scotland and France illegal salmon fishing

used to run rampant. In Scotland the most common form of illegal fishing came about using a

long spear late at night. Fishermen would use lanterns to fish in the middle of the night to avoid

local police. At one point police officers would round a bend to see a lake with its shores entirely

illuminated by lantern light. Historically there has been a tradition of ignoring fines and

regulations around salmon fishing, the profits to be gained from illegally fishing usually

outweighs the fines collected (Kurlansky 367). In the 20th and 21st centuries illegal salmon

fishing took a different turn. In Siberia there is a thriving illegal salmon trade. According to

Salmon, by Mark Kurlanksy, “Twenty five percent of the world’s Pacific salmon spawn in the

rivers of the Kamchatka Peninsula. If that is combined with Alaskan salmon, the two represent
more than two-thirds of the world’s salmon” (358). This is important because it means salmon

mobs control a near majority of the world's salmon, allowing them to turn incredible profits

which encourage them to continue. These mafias are not usually local operations: “some are

locals and some are organized crime outfits. Russians come from the mainland to poach in the

waters of Kamchatka Peninsula. Even a child can make $45,000 in a salmon season just hauling

the illegal catch to market” (Kurlansky 368). This is one of the main issues with illegal fishing:

there is far more money to be made illegally in the salmon industry, especially in Siberia. In

Russia scientists believe more salmon are caught illegally than legally in Siberia, though “more

conservative estimates are that it is about equal” (Kurlansky 369). Many in these areas are

becoming more aware of the consequences of their actions. The decline of salmon populations

has become common knowledge so many mafia fishermen and poachers are leaving the illegal

salmon trade, hoping to revive salmon runs and give salmon a chance at survival.

Fish Hatcheries

Salmon hatcheries have been sold to governments as a way to revive salmon populations.

In some cases they can be beneficial, saving decimated salmon populations and keeping runs

alive, but they face a number of issues surrounding weaker genetics, management, and how they

handle dams and other human activities. In theory, hatcheries are a great solution, but they fail to

target the root of the problems of degradation of clean spawning habitat and barriers blocking

those areas (Kurlansky 215). Hatcheries have become prolific, especially in the U.S, Canada, and

Russia, and particularly in Alaska. These Alaskan hatcheries are different from many others in

the U.S “because they often are built not to try to increase declining runs. This is particularly true

of the one in Valdez, by Prince William Sound. The runs are healthy and the habitat is in good,
sometimes even pristine, condition. But it seems it is always tempting to try to have more”

(Kurlansky 233). This seems to be part of the reasoning behind increased hatchery output in the

Northern U.S. In the Northern U.S. “Over five billion juvenile salmon are released from

enhancement facilities into the North Pacific Ocean each year, primarily to support commercial

and recreational fisheries and secondarily to maintain spawning abundance for construction

needs” (James 2). This is interesting because traditionally hatcheries were a way for governments

to mitigate and slow salmon population declines, they hoped to bolster the populations while

simultaneously increasing restrictions on the fishing industry. This is how they were used on the

East and West coasts and Japan. Once the populations reached an alarmingly low level, they

would integrate the hatcheries, releasing juvenile salmon in large numbers once they were big

enough. This can be helpful in supporting local salmon populations, but there are a number of

problems associated with hatcheries (Investigating Hatchery Effectiveness).

One of the problems that come from hatchery salmon is the mixed wild and hatchery

offspring they produce. In much of the world a large portion of the “wild” salmon population has

at least a little hatchery genes. In the Pacific Northwest 80 percent of the pacific salmon catch is

from hatcheries. In Alaska, 95 percent is partially hatchery based (Kurlansky 237). This can

create a number of problems, especially seeing that “Widely accepted research has determined

that in the case of coho and steelhead in the Columbia Basin, the hatchery fish have produced a

mixed stock that is less fit” (Kurlansky 234). This can be extrapolated to other stocks, including

red, king, pink, masu, and chum salmon, that have all seen similar declines and have similar

hatchery programs. This “less fit” stock can change an entire population of salmon. Many of

these salmon are less capable of hunting and returning to their natal streams. In some cases large

numbers of hatchery salmon do not return to their natal streams. Overall, hatchery salmon
populations do not have the same survival skills as wild fish, making them less competitive.

Hatcheries have begun shifting their focus towards growing salmon populations that are as close

to wild stocks as possible, but it is apparent that any time spent in a hatchery will change their

survival skills and genes. Despite this some salmon are being “spawned based on a genetic

matrix and reared using restoration hatchery techniques by US Army Corps of Engineers

partners” (Conservation Hatchery Program). Hatchery supplementation could become beneficial

in the future, but the key is to pair it with restoration techniques.

However, the main problem with salmon hatcheries is that they do not face the main

issues hindering salmon (Kurlansky 215). Governments can use salmon hatcheries to cover up

the effects of building dams and polluting rivers. According to Kurlansky, “the Elwha Dam was

completed in 1912 with no fish passage. In an extraordinary example of how hatcheries are used

to avoid true conservation measures, hatcheries began to be built to compensate for the vanishing

salmon” (337). There were many dams constructed like this, blocking off entire river systems

and stopping salmon from returning to their spawning grounds. Hatcheries can often be stated as

a solution to the issue of salmon declines, but in reality they are only a piece of it. In many cases

when hatcheries are paired with habitat restoration, the salmon come back and are able to

increase in population. When logging on the Columbia decreased, salmon were able to travel

more freely without splash dams and sawdust in the river. This has a huge positive impact on the

species, but the populations were still not what they used to be. The use of hatcheries can give

the lessened population a fighting chance to regrow and repopulate a river. The removal of dams

can be one of the best ways to increase salmon populations. On the east coast, in Maine,

“hatcheries began to try to increase salmon in the Penobscot in the 1960s with little success.

Then, there was a successful effort to clean up the polluted river, and in 1974 a more advanced
hatchery was established on the cleaner waterway… salmon were starting to come back… this

outcome suggests that it was the habitat improvements, not the hatchery, that helped the

Penobscot salmon” (Kurlansky 221). The most effective path forward is to remove dams and to

increase habitat restoration in all salmon rivers around the world. By improving river flows and

habitat conditions, salmon may be able to come back and exist in a sustainable system

(Kurlansky 232). Hatcheries may not even be needed to repopulate some rivers. In England

restoration was carried out on the Mersey river, where salmon no longer ran, and after it was

complete, strays from nearby rivers came to repopulate it (Kurlansky 339). If hatcheries and

restoration can be combined, then there would be a better chance of reviving salmon stocks and

maintaining them in a sustainable way. Unfortunately there are other issues surrounding salmon,

similarly to hatcheries, salmon farms pose a large risk to wild salmon populations.

Salmon Farms

Salmon farming can be harmful to the environment and wild stocks of salmon through

their escapes, genetic inferiority, diseases, and waste. Despite this, there are strong arguments for

the creation and maintenance of salmon farms. They are able to feed a massive number of

people, providing healthy food and jobs for tens of thousands of people. These farms are

primarily located in Northern Europe and areas of North America, with the majority of salmon

farms residing in Norway and Scotland. These two countries are the biggest producers of farmed

salmon meat in the world, farming millions of fish every year.

In salmon farms like the ones in Norway and Scotland, tens of thousands of fish are kept

together in a small space. This many fish in one place creates massive levels of waste. Kurlansky

describes, “The first complaint against salmon farming is that it causes pollution. A pen with
200,000 fish produces an enormous amount of waste… large concentrations of it can be

destructive. This is why the waste of wild fish swimming around is not harmful but the waste of

hundreds of thousands staying in the same spot is” (Kurlansky 247). This waste builds up,

polluting the local area in similar ways to other man made pollutants. The increased waste robs

the water of oxygen and can introduce pathogens harmful to salmon and other species. To

mitigate excess waste, salmon farm operators place their pens in areas with deep, swift moving

currents to move the waste around and dilute it. This has positive and negative effects. Salmon

are naturally attracted to areas with deep, swift moving currents, so positioning pens in these

areas becomes beneficial for the salmon's growth. Unfortunately, this means farmed salmon

come into contact with wilds stocks more often, which allows the issues surrounding farmed

salmon to spread to wild populations nearby.

In addition to higher levels of waste accumulation, when salmon are forced together in

large numbers, they are more susceptible to disease and parasites. One of the most devastating

parasites for salmon farmers is sea lice, or lepeophtheirus salmonis (Dengjun Zhang et al. 1). In

some cases the sea louse can devour a third of an entire pen before harvest, creating a huge

financial drain on farmers and leading to incredible loss in salmon life. In the wild salmon louse

are manageable, salmon travel quickly in smaller schools in the deep ocean, rarely encountering

the parasite. When fishing for salmon, it is uncommon to see more than two or three lice. In the

pens it is a different story altogether. In close quarters, salmon are prime targets for sea lice,

where they gather in hundreds on each fish. This can lead to large pieces of missing flesh, or the

complete disintegration of fish. This increased mass of sea lice can then attach themselves to

nearby wild salmon, spreading diseases and killing them. In many areas of the world “wherever

there are fish farms near wild runs, the wild runs are also plagued by sea lice” (Kurlansky 250).
The sea lice can then devour wild stocks as well, eating juvenile and young fish near the pens.

The parasite may also spread diseases to wild stocks, but this is difficult to prove because the

majority of wild salmon that die are eaten by other animals, leaving no trace of the farmed

salmon’s impact (Kurlansky 254). Countries across the world are attempting to combat this issue,

using a multitude of delousing methods. Unfortunately, according to Dengjun Zhang et al., “it

has been documented that delousing treatments affect the growth rate of salmon negatively,

which may lead salmon farmers to harvest salmon of smaller sizes, ultimately indicating poor

harvest management” (1). In addition to this, it can be incredibly expensive to treat these fish,

costing anywhere “between US$ 321,634 and $1,115,091, equivalent to a loss of US$ .15 and .67

per kg of farmed salmon” (Dengjun Zhang et al. 3). This means that farmers are paying more for

fish that are not growing as large as usual, further decreasing their profits.

There is an argument currently for salmon farms to be moved inland and to be outfitted

with large solar panels to make up for the cost of running them there. There are issues with

inland fish farming, but it would remove the environmental impacts of salmon farms and protect

wild stocks. Unfortunately, it would create energy needs inland concerning the pens and there

would be a massive upfront cost. In British Columbia, where roughly 1 percent of the global

salmon farming economy is located, “moving current levels of ocean farm production to land,

which is approximately 90,000 tons, would require a direct investment of between (CAD) $1.8

billion to $2.2 billion (U.S. $1.3 billion to $1.6 billion)” (Global Seafood Advocate). This

includes new technologies that would be required to run the facilities in addition to the upfront

cost of moving the fish. However, in the long run it could reduce the impacts of waste, sea lice,

and escapements from farmed salmon on wild stocks.

Salmon farms also impact the greater environment and wild salmon populations through
escapes. There is a huge risk associated with escaped farmed salmon, and this risk is not

unfounded either. Each year thousands of farmed salmon escape into the wild, primarily in the

Atlantic, but also in the Pacific. A large portion of the “wild” catches in the North Atlantic are in

reality at least partially farmed salmon. Kurlansky further mentions that, “more than a third of

the wild catch from the Faroes are actually escaped farmed fish” (247). This is an issue because

farmed salmon are genetically less fit than wild salmon, but can still find ways to pass their

genes onto the next generation of wild fish. Males that escape from salmon farms are rarely able

to mate with wild females, if they even survive to that point, but escaped female salmon are a

different matter. Sometimes the females are able to lay eggs that get fertilized by wild males,

creating a new generation of mixed farm and wild genes. Kurlansky further examines this,

mentioning that, “a salmon living in the wild that has a farmed parent or even grandparent is

much less likely to survive at sea, and, in fact, sea survival has declined in places with farming”

(247). This is important because it is becoming more and more difficult for many of these salmon

to survive, even with more potent survival skills. If they are further weakened, they may not be

able to survive. These weaker genes come from selective breeding programs brought on by

salmon farmers. The salmon in the pens are bred to grow fat and be incredibly mellow and

people are beginning to enjoy farmed salmon more than wild salmon because this creates a

“mildness and fattiness” (Kurlansky 241) that they enjoy. This is further exacerbated by the fact

that wild salmon are on the decline, making it more difficult and expensive to purchase. Farmed

salmon is more accessible and cheaper. Fortunately for the Pacific side of the salmon industry,

farmed salmon is primarily Atlantic salmon (Kurlansky 244). Atlantic salmon are smaller and

weaker than Pacific salmon, so if they escape, they are unable to gain a foothold to take over any

area. This is not to say there is fear and risk around the escapement of Atlantic salmon, or any
farmed salmon, into western watersheds. In August, 2017, a pen in Washington State’s Puget

Sound broke, releasing hundreds of thousands of farmed Atlantic salmon into the rivers of the

Pacific Northwest (Kurlansky 248). Biologists are nearly certain most of the fish have died, but it

caused enough worry in Washington state to force a phasing out of all salmon farms.

Despite the risks posed by salmon farms to the ecosystem, they are not likely to

disappear. Many of their supporters advocate to keep them around because they are able to

supply a large amount of healthy and delicious food to many people for a lower price than

commercial salmon fisheries and they provide jobs for thousands of people across the world.

Salmon farms are a valuable resource and economic industry surrounding many countries,

primarily Norway, Scotland, Britain, Chile, and the U.S. In Scotland in 1982, “the government

enthusiastically backed salmon farming because it provided jobs and produced a valuable,

much-needed export” (Kurlansky 243). Because of these factors, salmon farming most likely will

not go away, but there is definite need for it to be reformed or moved inland.

Warming Water and Climate Change

An even bigger driver of salmon declines is much more pressing and prevalent than

salmon farms and will most definitely not go away; Warming waters are decimating salmon runs

across the world, affecting both juvenile and adult salmon, in and out of rivers, this is because of

human-caused climate change. Climate change is increasing the temperature of the planet,

melting ice and snow melt, which in turn alters the temperature of river systems. This affects

salmon’s ability to spawn, find food, and migrate. Warming water temperatures and dams seem

to be the biggest drivers of salmon population declines. Greenhouse gas emissions released by

human industrial activities are warming the planet by incredible rates. This warming impacts the
length at which snowpack can stay frozen on mountains and glaciers. If less snow falls, or

instead falls as rain, and does not stay long enough, then rivers will not be able to flow properly

and their temperatures will increase. Rivers require consistent melting of snow throughout the

year to maintain stable temperatures and flow. The first way this impacts salmon is through

increased egg mortality. Many scientists predict that when salmon spawn in rivers that are too

warm, their eggs will die in the shallow, warm water (Service 268). This warming primarily

affects young fish who are adapted to the freezing conditions of the north and not to increasingly

hot waters. Adults are also affected, primarily in migration and finding food. In the article,

“Meager snows spell trouble ahead for salmon,” Robert F. Service describes that, “adult fish

sometimes survive those temperatures by halting their migrations and holing up in colder water

tributaries they can find. Yet doing so can bring other problems. For starters, salmon don’t eat

during spawning, so extended layovers can sap the energy reserves they need to complete their

trip” (269). Salmon collect a storage of fat so they can make the long trek back to their natal

streams. As the author stated, they do not eat while traveling, so any extended break could result

in massive amounts of energy stores being wasted. This increases salmon mortality, stopping

adult salmon from reaching their natal streams to spawn. In addition to travel, warming waters

affect adult and juvenile salmon through decreased food abundance, decimating the plankton

they and all life, directly or indirectly, rely on.

On average the temperature of the ocean has been increasing, causing changes to

zooplankton and algae compositions across the globe. The food that Pacific salmon eat requires

the “upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters off the West coast… there has been less upwelling

than usual because of a layer of unusually warm surface water, which has already led to a crash

in sardine and seabird populations” (Service 269). This decrease in cold water is leading to a
decrease in the vital zooplankton salmon require to grow to proper sizes. This is one of the only

reasons salmon move to the ocean, there is infinitely more resources and food available for them

to grow larger than their steelhead and biwa trout cousins. With a decrease in food, salmon

cannot build up the fat stores they need to travel to their spawning grounds. This makes layovers

due to warm water even more tragic and dangerous for them. Unfortunately, there does not seem

to be an end in sight. It is predicted that the next couple years will be as hot and dry, if not more

so, in California. Many scientists believe this could bring about the extinction of California

salmon populations by the end of the century (Service 269). This decline in zooplankton could be

attributed to a decrease in salinity across the Pacific Ocean due to melting glaciers and an

increase in freshwater making its way into the ocean. This leads larger, high energy zooplankton

to die off and be replaced by low energy zooplankton that cannot sustain the fish relying on them

(Kurlansky 299). This point is further supported by Keister et al., stating, “an alternative

explanation is that conditions that favor the dominance of small oceanic taxa are associated with

those that lead to poor salmon survival” (2402). An increase in these smaller ocean taxa, as a

result of man-made climate change, is lending itself to the decline of salmon populations. This is

concerning because there is little governments or the fishing industry can do to stop this. In

Norway they have ceased almost all commercial salmon fishing operations and have some of the

cleanest rivers in the world, but still they have reported 50% fewer salmon today than 30 years

ago (Kurlansky 303). In Wales, on the River Dee, conservationists have been studying the effects

of warming rivers on the local salmon. Mark Bilsby, the CEO of the Atlantic Salmon Trust and

former lead biologists of the River Dee said that, “warming is one problem… Now, when the

water warms to above twenty-three degrees Celsius… salmon struggle… At twenty-seven to

thirty degrees for a week you can lose half the population” (Kurlansky 310-311). In this study the
group also tagged fish in the river, but 70 percent never made it to the mouth. The majority

seemed to die somewhere along the way. The River Dee is an incredibly clean river as well, so

the group does not believe pollution to be a factor (Kurlansky 310). The scientists believe

warming to be one of the biggest factors contributing to these salmon never making it to the

mouth of the river. If these trends continue, the Northern Hemisphere will lose almost all of its

salmon. It would not matter if humans were to remove every dam in the world and cease all

aspects of the salmon industry and pollution, though it could help to delay the inevitable.

Salmon’s biggest opposition in the battle of survival is climate change and warming waters, in

rivers and the ocean.

Part IV: Conclusion

Salmon have been negatively impacted by dams, fish farms, pollution, and overfishing,

but humans can fix these problems by removing dams, moving fish farms inland, cleaning up

rivers, and placing larger restrictions on fisheries, and changing sustainability measures. Habitat

restoration for salmon involves the cleanup of pollutants on the river, removing dams, and in

some cases the implementation of hatcheries to supplement depleted wild stocks. Conservation

groups and governments should focus on removing or decreasing the levels of toxins that disrupt

salmon navigational systems and development in salmon streams. Unfortunately for many who

use these substances, salmon live in the majority of the rivers where human habitation has

grown, especially in the continental U.S.

It takes funds from the government and other organizations to clean up rivers and

decrease pollution. Many of these funds dry up or overflow depending on the administration

governing regional and federal conservation and wildlife programs. In the late 1900s there was
an effort to clean up the Connecticut River, and it appeared to be working, but efforts ceased

when George W. Bush was elected and his administration cut funding to areas of the U.S Fish

and Wildlife Department. Today efforts to clean up rivers are continuing. The Penobscot River in

Maine now has a semi-wild returning salmon run and new efforts to clean up the Connecticut

have worked, bringing back a run of roughly 40-500 fish each year (Kurlansky 316). This is

nowhere close to pre-industrial population levels, but it is a positive start that could grow as

more citizens become aware of the risks humanity poses to salmon.

Many restoration projects have helped by removing dams that are no longer necessary or

that are damaged. There are thousands of these dams across the river systems where salmon

spawn. The dams no longer generate electricity, or do not hold water in a beneficial way, so they

can be removed with little effect. The Elwha dam in Washington is a perfect example of an old

dam being removed because the environmental benefits of destroying it outweigh the industrial

benefits of keeping it. When dams are removed there are almost immediate effects. Salmon come

back and repopulate the rivers, coming from either hatchery programs or strays from nearby

rivers. On the East Coast, pollution cleanup and dam removal went hand in hand to revive dead

salmon rivers. Habitat restoration may be one of the best ways to recover salmon populations in

the continental U.S.

In addition to habitat restoration, moving salmon farms inland could be a viable solution

to their waste and sea lice impact on wild stocks. Sea lice is one of the biggest issues, so moving

the salmon away from wild salmon populations would decrease the amount of lice and disease

spreading to them. In addition, having farmed salmon in controlled internal environments would

benefit farmers as well. They would not have to worry about delousing treatments or sea lice

eating their fish because the tanks they would use would not have the parasite to begin with. The
issue with this solution is that it is expensive to move existing fish inland and to maintain any

large salmon tanks for extended periods of time. There would be positive benefits for the

environment if salmon farms moved inland, but the move would increase costs for the farmers.

This would be in the form of physically moving the fish, developing new technologies, and

maintaining the new pens. This may be a price that must be paid for wild salmon to survive.

The bill may be overdue though. These solutions are a way to delay and protect some

salmon from the extinction of Southern salmon stocks due to climate change and warming

waters. There may be little that can be done to reduce these losses, but Northern salmon stocks

can still be saved from the effects of warming oceans. If human industry is able to stop

producing greenhouse gasses, then salmon in the North, i.e. Alaska and Siberia, may have a

chance to survive. It will take longer for the effects of climate change to disrupt their day to day

lives as much as to the south, but they are already being impacted. There needs to be further

research done on the effects of climate change on northern stocks of salmon. How will the

decrease in ice and early melting periods change the growth and productivity of these fish and

how will this impact the fisheries and indigenous groups who rely on them? In addition to this,

there is little research around the sustainability of Alaskan and Russian salmon hatcheries. What

are the implications of long term hatchery use? It would be beneficial to look into the differences

in wild and hatchery salmon and how soon the majority of Alaskan and Russian salmon will

become at least partially hatchery based. These salmon need to be managed with indigenous and

commercial interests in mind, while also maintaining the health of the greater ecosystem.

In support of a healthy sustainability framework, it would be beneficial for indigenous

groups, salmon industries, and the environment if salmon were to return. Salmon are culturally

and physically important to Native groups across the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, being used
in some traditional and spiritual ways while also providing a consistent and nutritious food

source for them to harvest. If salmon were able to come back in larger numbers, tribes would be

able to receive the proper amount of salmon allocated to them each year. The amount has not

reached proper amounts in years in the lower 48. There is a duty from the U.S government to

uphold traditional salmon runs for these Native groups. In addition to the cultural aspects of

salmon, the economic value of the fish would increase if they came back. Currently salmon

fisheries are being shut down across the world due to scarcity, partially caused by overfishing. If

salmon stocks were able to regain pre-industrial levels, or somewhere near that, then these

fisheries would have little risk in continuing to fish, as long as they adapt to a more sustainable

and small-scale system. This would create a number of lucrative jobs. Jobs are also created

through restoration programs, employing thousands of people across the Pacific Northwest and

New England. Salmon are also vital to the ecosystem, providing important nutrients to riverine

environments. Without them, animals that feed on salmon, such as bears, eagles, orcas, and otters

would have less to sustain them. It would be devastating if salmon were to continue to decline.

There would be massive cultural, environmental, and economic loss, tossing the sustainability of

this magical species into disrepair.

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