ACTIVITY #6 SENSORS

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS AND DEVICES LABORATORY(ECE107L)

Batalon, R., Centino, E., Magcale, JM., Salita, B.,Salvador, S., Valles, C., Villena, M.

Photoelectric Sensors
According to KEYENCE (n.d.), photoelectric sensors detect objects using visible or infrared light.
The two main types of this sensor are reflective and thru-beam sensors. Reflective sensors work by
bouncing light to a target and looking for the reflection, while thru-beam sensors look for a break in a
beam of light caused by something passing through it.

Figure 1. Photoelectric sensor.

The following figures below present the working principle of a photoelectric sensor.

Light travels in straight lines and can bend or bounce back. Rectilinear propagation is important in
through-beam sensors where a light path is unobstructed for object detection. Also, reflection can be
in one direction (retroreflection) or scattered (diffuse reflection).

Figure 2. Properties of Light.

The photoelectric sensor also uses a pulse-modulated or a non-modulated light. By emitting light in
bursts, the pulse-modulated light minimizes the impact of external light interference, allowing for
reliable object detection at greater distances. Non-modulated light provides faster response time but
can only be used for shorter distances.
 Figure 3. Pulse modulated and non-modulated light.

Figure 4. Triangulation.

Triangulation explains how the sensor analyzes the position where reflected light strikes the position
detector to calculate the object's distance. This approach effectively determines the object's location
relative to the sensor.

Retro-Reflective Sensors
A major type of photoelectric sensor’s sensing method. The emitter and receiver are together in the
same housing, and light from the emitter is typically reflected back by a dedicated reflector,
positioned opposite to the sensor. When an object disrupts the light path between the sensor and
reflector, a decrease in received light intensity occurs. This reduction serves as the principle for object
detection as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5. A photoelectric retro-reflective sensor (CX-491-P-Z).

 Figure 6. How retro-reflective sensor works.

Background Suppression Sensors

Background Suppression Sensors are devices commonly used in industrial automation and robotics to
detect objects while ignoring background elements. They operate on emitting a beam of light,
typically infrared, and analyzing the light reflected to the sensor. The sensor detects objects within a
specific range while disregarding background surfaces beyond a certain distance. This is achieved
through optics and algorithms that focus on the reflection pattern and intensity of the returned light.
By comparing the received signal with a predefined threshold, the sensor can distinguish between
objects in the foreground and background. Additionally, these sensors employ the triangulation
principle or time-of-flight methods to enhance accuracy and reliability in detecting objects regardless
of their material or surface properties. Background Suppression Sensors find applications in
industries, including automotive assembly lines, packaging, and material handling, where precise
object detection is crucial for efficient operation.

Figure 7. How background suppression sensors work.

Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors are electronic devices that detect the presence or proximity of objects by
measuring changes in capacitance. They operate on the principle of capacitance, which is the ability
of a system to store an electrical charge. These sensors consist of two conductive plates separated by a
dielectric material, forming a capacitor. When an object enters the sensor's detection field, the
capacitance is altered by changing the dielectric constant between the plates. This change in
capacitance is then converted into an electrical signal, which is processed by the sensor's circuitry.
Capacitive sensors can detect both conductive and non-conductive materials, making them versatile
for various applications. They are commonly used in touchscreens, proximity sensing systems, and
object detection in industrial automation. The sensitivity of capacitive sensors can be adjusted to
detect objects at different distances, providing flexibility in their use. Additionally, they are immune to
environmental factors such as dust, moisture, and temperature fluctuations, enhancing their reliability
in harsh conditions. Capacitive sensors offer high accuracy and fast response times, making them
suitable for precise and rapid detection tasks in different settings.

Figure 8. How capacitive sensors work.

Target: When the target object (conductor or dielectric) falls close to the plate, its electrostatic field is
disturbed. The capacitance between the plate and the target increases because of the material at the
target.

Plate: The plate represents the one end of a capacitor. The capacitance is detected by this part, which
is a sensor.

Oscillator: The circuit produces an AC signal with high frequency. This AC creates a static electric
field around the plate.

Capacitance Change: By this increase in capacitance, the oscillator starts to distinguish the change
of frequency or amplitude of its oscillation. The opposition means that the capacitor behaves like the
temporary storage of electric charge, and a greater capacitance can store more electric charge, which
impacts the oscillator's behavior.

Trigger Circuit: This circuit tracks oscillator output. When capacitance changes due to the plate's
proximity to the target, the trigger circuit senses the oscillator signal in frequency or amplitude
(depending on the type of signal).

Output Switching Device: The output switching element has different conditions according to the
input circuit's signal. The input can be a switch making on/off or a signal being calculated/transmitted
to indicate the presence of the target.

Therefore, the capacitive sensor acts as a gauge that monitors the state of the electrostatic field around
a plate. A shift in the capacitance occurs when any object (either conductor or insulator) comes near
the plate, thereby distorting the field around the plate. When the displacement capacitance changes,
the oscillator circuit detects it and switches the output device on, thus sending a signal to show that
the target object is present.

Inductive Sensors
Inductive sensors are devices that detect the presence or proximity of metallic objects by generating
electromagnetic fields. They operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction, where a coil
within the sensor produces a magnetic field when an electrical current is applied. When a metallic
object enters the sensor's detection range, it disturbs the magnetic field, causing a change in the coil's
inductance. This change in inductance is then detected by the sensor's circuit and converted into an
electrical signal, indicating the object's presence. Inductive sensors are commonly used in industrial
automation for tasks such as detecting the presence of metal parts on conveyor belts, detecting the
position of machine components, and monitoring machinery for faults. Moreover, it offers non-contact
detection, making it suitable for applications where contact with the object is impractical or
undesirable. Inductive sensors are available in various sizes and sensing ranges to accommodate
application requirements.

Figure 9. How inductive sensors work.

Inductive sensors operate according to the principle of electromagnetic induction. These wires are
constructed by coiling a wire around a core substance. When an alternating current enters through the
coil, it could induce an electromagnetic field around it. If a conductive object has some form of metal,
it is placed in the conductive field, generating eddy currents in the object. This, in contrast, will
transform the magnetic field around the coil. Upon coming across a magnetic field different from the
one of the scanner, its electronics detect the signal and assert the object's existence. Induction sensors
are often used to measure distances, metals, and positions because they can work in hazardous
environments and are quite resistant.

References
Byju’s. (n.d.). Capacitive Sensors. https://byjus.com/physics/capacitive-sensors/

Design World Staff. (n.d.). Background-suppression Sensors: Longer Ranges Solve Bigger Problems.
https://www.designworldonline.com/background-suppression-sensors-longer-ranges-solve-big
ger-problems/
KEYENCE. (n.d.). What is a Photoelectric Sensor?
https://www.keyence.com/ss/products/sensor/sensorbasics/photoelectric/info/

OMRON. (n.d.). Photoelectric Sensors.

https://www.ia.omron.com/support/guide/43/introduction.html

Stykemain, A. (2021, July 14). Capacitive Sensor Explained | Different Types and Applications.
https://www.realpars.com/blog/capacitive-sensor