Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1. What is a literature review?

The word "literature" covers everything that is written and/or published on a topic
of study: books, journal articles, newspaper articles, historical records, government
reports, theses and dissertations, etc.

As a literature review is written to highlight specific arguments and ideas in a field

of study, the purpose of a literature review is analyzing critically the published
information in a particular subject area through summary, classification, and
comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles
in chronologically or thematically organization. By highlighting these arguments,
the writer shows what has been studied in the field, and also where the weaknesses,
gaps, or areas needing further study are. As a result, the review demonstrates to the
reader why the writer’s research is useful, necessary, important, and valid.

1.2. Who should write a literature review or do a literature review task? and
why?

There are many benefits to writing a literature review; it provides an opportunity to:

 evaluate previous studies and identify gap(s) in previous research

 outline main arguments in the field
 show that you are familiar with the literature on your topic
 indicate who the main writers are in a particular area
 position your work in relation to other writers
 identify areas of controversy

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  support your own work by citing other authors
 highlight current literature and use older sources where relevant
 evaluate previous methodologies
 avoid plagiarism and demonstrate your referencing skills
 provide a clear theoretical framework
 demonstrate your understanding of the key ideas and concepts in your topic
 define your terms, drawing on other writers’ definitions
 make you more confident that your area of research is worth studying

(Collected from CQUniversity 2010; Leedy & Ormrod 2005; Roberts

& Taylor 2002; Swales & Feak 1994)

Literature review is a must to anyone who aims to compare different ideas or

perspectives on a topic and evaluating these ideas in order to relate these ideas and
viewpoints to his/her own work. The reviewers are ones who are going to discover
what has been written about a topic already, identify and resolve contradictions of
ideas and determine gaps or unanswered questions (if required). Hence, they are
normally scholars and researchers who use literature to support their arguments and
establish theoretical framework (framework of theories and ideas). At some point
in university study, students may be asked to review the literature on a certain
subject or in a particular area. Students may be writing a literature review as an
assignment or part of a thesis.

However, students should note that a literature review differs from other forms of
essay writing in that in other kinds of essay writing, you may use relevant literature
to support the discussion of a given topic following a particular type of expository
writing; in a literature review, the literature itself is the subject and the focus of
discussion. You need to weigh up arguments and critique ideas, rather than just
providing a single idea or a list of what different writers have said.
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Do not worry if the requirements and characteristics of literature review is new
experience and is still confusing to you at this stage. You may feel that these
demands are different from your writing and presenting habit, there are, however,
discussion in more details and follow-up exercises in the next chapters. Chapter 2,
3, 4 will discuss the most common problems Asian students have with writing
literature review in education and social research and teach you how to overcome
and deal with these problems. Chapter 5 will give advice on how to write a
successful literature review in the field.

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 Chapter 2

Plagiarism: cultural background and

Asian view of knowledge
2.1. What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is representing, citing, making use of, publishing the creative work of
another as your own original work without appropriate acknowledgement.
According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, to plagiarize means

 Stealing and passing off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own

 Using (another's production) without crediting the source

 Committing literary theft

 Presenting as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing

source.

To make it clearer, in the book Coursework Assessment Policy and Procedures

Manual, The University of technology Sydney notes that plagiarism includes.

 Copying out part(s) of any document, audio-visual material, computer-based

material or artistic piece without acknowledging the source. This includes
copying directly from the original, or from a secondary source (eg.
photocopy, fax, email), or by other means, including memorizing.

 Using or extracting another person's concepts, results, processes or

conclusions and passing them off as one's own.

 Summarizing and paraphrasing another's work without acknowledging the

source.

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  Preparing an assignment collaboratively and then submitting work that is
substantially the same as another student's assessment in cases where the
assessment task is intended to be individual work - not group work. This
does not include legitimate forms of cooperation such as students discussing
their work with others, exchanging ideas, or seeking help from lecturers.

 Asking another person to write an assessment item.

Importantly, many people think of plagiarism simply as copying another’s work, or

borrowing someone else’s original ideas. But Plagiarism also involves both stealing
someone else’s work and lying about it as the following cases:

 Failing to put a quotation in quotation marks

 Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation

 Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without

giving credit

 Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority
of work, whether giving credit or not.

The issue of plagiarism in Western academic institutions has become more

prominent over recent years (Ashworth et al. 1997; Carroll 2001; Errey 2002; Shei
2004). When international students enter Western academic institutions they bring
with them their own cultures that include different ideas, assumptions and
experiences that have been learned from early childhood (Fox 1994). Fox (1994)
suggests that these different cultural worldviews affect the way students interact
with each other and their teachers, how they read and study, and especially how
they understand and write assignments. Although this issue in writing is not
restricted to international students there appears to be evidence that culture affects

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strongly on how students write (Ashworth et al. 1997; Carroll 2001; Errey 2002;
Shei 2004).

However, as Shei (2004) notes, not all cultures agree with the gene accepted
western definition of plagiarism: that stealing someone else’s words and passing it
off as your own, is morally wrong. There are many factors involved in whether a
student is involved in plagiarism or not. These factors include the pressures
involved in adapting to new surroundings, writing in a different language, different
learning and writing styles of different cultures and the differing ideologies
concerning the written word (Shei 2004; Hayes & Introna 2005; Liu 2005). For the
purposes of this book the literature is focused only on ideological perspectives of
the written word.

2.2. Cultural background

This section will focus on aspects of the Chinese culture which are relevant to
Chinese as well learners from most Asian countries in terms of their attitudes
towards plagiarism. Watkins and Biggs (1996) used the term “Confucian heritage
cultures” to refer to students from countries or regions such as China, Taiwan,
Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Korea where Confucian heritage was shared
historically. Hence, the term “China” is not limited only to students from mainland
China. It refers to international students coming from Chinese Confucian heritage
cultures. Therefore, international students with at least one parent from China,
Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, or Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam are
included as “Chinese students” in a broader context.

Chan (1999) believed that the style of Chinese learning was still very much
influenced by Confucianism that is dominated by rote learning and imitation. Chan
argues that Chinese style of learning evident in China, Hong Kong, and South East
Asian countries, is influenced strongly by Confucian philosophy. Confucius
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teachings began as a set of moral rules for society (Chan 1999). Rulers were to
govern with benevolence and justice while the people must obey and respect their
leaders. By providing a clear hierarchical structure based on mutual respect, society
would be able to live in harmony. Confucianism has developed into a philosophy
which permeates all aspects of Chinese society today and is a critical element of
Chinese cultural identity (Chan 1999).

In Shei’s (2004) review, imitation is an integral part of learning in the Chinese

tradition. According to Shei, this is true for many aspects of intellectual or artistic
activities, such as Taichichuan, Chinese calligraphy, and composition. In all these
activities, learning processes often start by imitating either a live-performing master
(in the case of Taichichuan) or historical documents (calligraphic manuscripts or
classical verses). The imitation process usually takes a very long period of time in
their lives. However, as Crew (1987) and Shei (2004) note, it will be a mistake to
assume that there is no element of creation for a Chinese learner embarked on a
learning journey of certain knowledge or skills, imitation is the general starting
point from which a great deal of variation of creation comes into play later. This is
proven by the wealth of its artistic, literary, philosophical, and other cultural
heritage.

Memorization is valued highly in Chinese society; the traditional Chinese view of

an educated civilized person is one who has a good memory of the classics.
Children are taught by memorization from an early age and throughout schooling
students are expected to memories large amounts of texts. Students show respect
and acknowledgement for an author by this way of rote learning. When writing,
they are normally expected to show that they have memorized well the given or
distributed text from their teacher or from reference books. This way of
teaching/learning may arise in relation to plagiarism when studying in western

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institutions (Chan 1999). It is therefore not surprising that when students who have
experienced these kinds of learning processes come to America or Western
countries that they have difficulties in changing their learning styles to become
analytical and critical of texts with the ability to express their own opinions in their
own words.

2.3. Stereotype about Asian writing style

International students have been described as “persistent plagiarizers” by Western

Academic Institutions (Park 2003). To explain why students from different cultures
plagiarize when studying abroad, several authors have highlighted that for many
students from the East, the approach to learning in the West is contrary to their
experiences in their own country (Matalene 1985; Pennycook 1996). Bell (1999)
states that “the copying we (in North America) call plagiarism is, however, not
considered a problem in many other cultures. In some cultures it is acceptable, even
flattering, to copy the work of masters. In some cases it is considered more humble
than boldly advocating your own opinions about something”. Therefore, for China
and other Asian countries, as discussed earlier, learning and assessment typically
focus on the content of textbooks. A consequence of this is that when they enter
Western higher education, it is difficult for them to be critical about an author and
to state their own opinions. Importantly, because of the cultural background of
teaching/learning, in learning to write, students are encouraged (and sometimes
required) to read and memories portions of classical works and use them in their
own writing. With this kind of skill learning, it is expected that creativity will be
built upon the good foundation of imitation. Matalene (1985), based on her first-
hand observations in China, views so-called plagiaristic tendencies as a reflection
of established Chinese literary conventions. Pennycook (1996) and Hammond
(2002) explain that, for Chinese students, using another author’s words is a form of

8
respect, and it is hard for these students to change this cultural practice. Sharing
this view, Yang and Lin (2009) note:

“the student did not think it was correct to rewrite an author’s words
since the author was well known and respected. Hence, he/she
included it in his/her text. This reverence for authority clearly comes
from a cultural worldview where a respect for predecessors and elders
is paramount” (p. 3).

2.4. Discussion and conclusion

As a result, Asian students write the way they have written in their home countries
and are normally shocked and confused to discover that this is not acceptable in
their “new” academic institution. In this case, plagiarism is seen as an intercultural
issue that comes from cultures where writing involved repeating the collective
wisdom and there is little need to acknowledge the source of information.
However, it is crucial to note that differences between cultures are not the only
factor explaining why a student’s work is marked as one product of plagiarism. Liu
(2005) suggests that the notion of plagiarism being a culture-specific concept is
based largely on the dubious claim because it is built primarily on inaccurate or
partly inaccurate information provided mostly by ESOL students who were found
plagiarizing. Based on her research, Liu argues that the claim that copying others’
writing as one’s own is allowed, taught and/or encouraged in China is not accurate.
In fact, when a paper is identified as plagiarized, there would be a variety of
possible underlying deliberate and accidental causes. Chester (2001) (adapted by
Hammond 2002) identified a number of reasons used by students to justify
plagiarism.

1. I couldn’t keep up with the work

2. The lecturer/tutor doesn’t care so why should I?

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 Chapter 3

Avoiding plagiarism

Look again the last section, discuss the questions below:

How the writer shows up his knowledge about the topic?

How does he make his argument more scientifically?

What strategies does he distinguish his own words from those of other
scholars?

What strategies does he use to avoid plagiarism as you can guess?

3.1. Reference and why reference?

When you research and write a review for a topic (literature review) you have to
use knowledge, ideas, and information from a number of sources, including books,
articles from journals or newspapers and websites to support what you are writing
in your work. Citing and referencing is a way of showing what sources you have
used, giving credit to the original authors. Because your work is expected to draw
on the work of others, a correct referencing is expected. Avoiding plagiarism is one
among several reasons why it is important to reference your writing. In reading the
previous section, you can notice that it provides references to thinkers and
researchers in the discipline, whose ideas or research it draws upon. Understanding
the reasons for referencing and acquiring the skills to correctly reference your
writing are vital for success in your critical work. There are several reasons for
referencing:

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To distinguish your voice

When you write a paper, it is assumed that all arguments, discussion, ideas, facts,
theories, and information are your own unless they are attributed to an outside
source. If you do not attribute outside sources by referencing them, there is no way
to distinguish your ideas from those of the sources. When marking a critical paper,
your lecturer or tutor needs to know which parts are original thought and which
parts are derived from the literature. Both literature and original thought are
important, but if you do not reference correctly the marker/reader cannot separate
them in your work or mark them accordingly.

To reinforce your argument

Referencing the readings shows that your argument is built up from evidence,
credibility, and authority. Especially when you write a literature review, references
tell the readers/markers that your writing is not just a matter of personal opinion: it
is backed up by experts/ scholars/ researchers in the field.

To show different perspectives

In a literature review, it is expected that you show how several different scholars
see one topic, what are the points of agreement, what are the conflicts, what are the
unanswered questions or the extent to which conflicts have been solved (I will
discuss these characteristics later). Because the academic culture is based on the
free exchange of ideas, in a literature review, it is essential to show how those ideas
fit together. Referencing is the standard way to show relations of ideas in the
literature. Referencing shows that you have considered the big picture by
understanding and using a range of sources. It emphasizes the scope and extent of
your research.

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To credit others for their contributions to your writing as copyright law

While in some cultures, knowledge tends to be regarded in communal rather than

individual terms. Copyright law in most country notes author’s moral rights which
include the right of attribution or the right for the author to be identified when their
work is used somewhere else. Students must also recognize that new knowledge is
built upon the work of those who have gone before, and these authors must be
given credit for their contribution.

Remember that as a student writer you are writing to display your knowledge and
sources of that knowledge; It is also a matter of ethical to properly acknowledge an
author's hard work.

To show that you have read. (Adapted from Deakin University Australia 2012)

It's useful to keep in mind the reader(s) and the purpose for your literature review
writing. Your reader is normally your teacher or marker who most likely is already
familiar with much of the information you are presenting. Thus your purpose is not
to explain to someone who does not know. Rather it is to display your knowledge
to show that you have read about the topic.

To show what you have read. (Adapted from Deakin University Australia 2012)

To write a literature review, you are expected to read widely and deeply in your
topic and to demonstrate your knowledge and familiarity with a topic that you are
researching. Referencing allows to you to demonstrate the breadth (how much) and
depth (the core or peripheral literature) of your reading efforts and connects you to
the academic discussion that is going on among scholars and researchers in your
field.

To enable the reader to locate the sources mentioned in your paper. (Adapted
from Deakin University Australia 2012)

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This is to help assessors/readers of your work to find the original source of
information or ideas that you have used, they need to be able to locate where you
found each quote, finding or idea. Assessors/readers may be interested in the idea
and want to read more themselves. They may want to check that you have copied it
accurately and not misunderstood the original author’s meaning.

To acknowledge your sources and avoid plagiarism. (Adapted from Deakin

University Australia 2012)

Giving the details of the source indicates that you are not plagiarizing other
people’s writing. Referencing is a distinguishing feature of writing in the Western
academic tradition. This tradition is based on the notion of intellectual property –
the concept that ideas and findings belong to the person who first formulates them.
According to this way of thinking about knowledge, failure to acknowledge sources
is intellectual theft.

3.2. What should you reference?

Think about the questions of sources of information below before reading the next
passage.

- Should I reference ideas from books? Yes / No

- Should I reference ideas from newspapers? Yes / No

- Should I reference ideas from journals? Yes / No

- Should I reference ideas from magazines? Yes / No

- Should I reference ideas from the Internet? Yes / No

You are required to acknowledge not only published and non-published words and
ideas, but also facts and figures, sounds and images that you have obtained from all
of the following sources:

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 - tables and graphs
- laboratory data
- statistics
- diagrams
- designs and plans
- images
- logos
- photographs
- experiment results
- music

Besides, you may need to cite material obtained from sources such as:

- the internet
- computer programs
- newspapers and magazines
- films and documentaries
- DVDs and CD-ROMs
- interviews
- brochures
- television and radio programs
- Podcasts and YouTube.

Note: About common knowledge

Common knowledge refers to facts that are so widely known it is unnecessary to

reference them. Common knowledge is general knowledge. Common knowledge
can be identified by considering two important questions:

Is the fact widely known?

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 Is the fact disputed by anyone?

For example:

Beijing is the capital of China.

Carrots contain vitamin A.

The main vehicle in Vietnam is motorbike (this is true in Vietnam).

English is an international language.

Buddhism is the main religion in Asia

These facts are so widely known that it is unnecessary to provide a source to

support them.

A widely known fact will appear in several different sources, particularly in general
reference sources like encyclopedias or dictionaries. Common knowledge will also
be widely known to your audience. If there is academic disagreement about a fact it
should not be treated as common knowledge. Likewise, interpretations of facts can
be different between different sources, so the interpretation is not common
knowledge. It is sometimes difficult to know what is and what is not common
knowledge in your field of study. If you read or hear the same information many
times from different sources, it is probably common knowledge. Common
knowledge usually includes major historical events, famous people and geographic
areas that are known about by educated people throughout the world, not just in the
country in which they occurred.

3.3. Types of plagiarism

Plagiarism can be divided into two cases:

 Deliberate plagiarism = cheating, theft, fraud

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  Accidental plagiarism = not following the conventions when writing for
publication or for university assignments.

Deliberate Plagiarism

Deliberate plagiarism (or intentional plagiarism) is cheating. It is a very serious

matter.

Deliberate plagiarism is submitting an assignment which was all or partly written

or designed by someone else. This includes:

 copying from someone you know

 downloading or buying from an Internet site

 allowing another person to submit your work as his/her own

 working together with another student on an assignment, and then

submitting individual work which is very similar in content and
language (this is called collusion)

Deliberate plagiarism is academic cheating. The penalties for deliberate plagiarism

are severe, so don't do it!

Accidental plagiarism

Deliberate plagiarism with a clear intention to cheat is. However, for learners, it is
far less common than plagiarism committed through lacking of knowledge and
cross-culture writing rules, misunderstanding, or even carelessness. Many students,
particularly those at the beginning of their courses, are unclear about how to use the
work of others in a way that does not constitute plagiarism.

These latter types of plagiarism occur when:

 failing to acknowledge fully the sources of knowledge and ideas that

you use in your work;
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  Incorporate the words of others into your writing as if they were your
own; without proper citation.

 Mixing and together ideas or facts taken from others without

presenting your own viewpoint.

Plagiarism can also be categorized into two other cases: when sources are not cited
and sources are cited.

Sources not cited

 The writer copies word-for-word, as his or her own, with and/or

without alteration,

 The writer tries to disguise plagiarism by copying from several

different sources, arranging the sentences to make them fit together
while retaining most of the original phrasing,

 Although the writer has retained the essential content of the source, he
or she has altered the paper’s appearance slightly by changing key
words and phrases,

 The writer takes the time to paraphrase most of the paper from other
source,

 The writer “borrows” from his or her own previous published work.

Sources cited (but still plagiarized)

 The writer mentions an author’s name for a source, but neglects to

include specific information on the location of the material referenced.
This often masks other forms of plagiarism by obscuring source
locations.

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  The writer provides inaccurate information regarding the sources,
making it impossible to find them.

 The writer properly cites a source, but neglects to put in quotation

marks text that has been copied word-for-word, or close to it.

 The writer properly cites all sources, paraphrasing, using quotations

and writing preferences appropriately. However, the paper contains
almost no original work.

Attention!

Changing the words of an original source is not sufficient to prevent plagiarism. It

is extremely important to note that changing a few words from an original source
does not qualify as paraphrasing. If you have retained the essential idea of an
original source, and have not cited it, then no matter how drastically you may have
altered its context or presentation, you have still plagiarized. A paraphrase must
make significant changes in the style and voice of the original while retaining the
essential ideas.

Taking notes that paraphrase the views and opinions of the authors that you read is
crucial in literature review. However, if your own writing consists largely of a
string of paraphrases from a number of different writers, or an almost exact copy of
the sequence of another writer's ideas and the logic of his/her argument, you may
be seen to be plagiarizing, even if you acknowledge the sources of your
information. This type of plagiarism is probably the most common among learners
who start to write academic assignment at university. Bare in mind that with a
given limitation of word, the more you quote, the less you can write in your paper.

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 ADVICES TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
3.5.1. Fully reference and acknowledge the work of others

When you do your reading and writing, keep a list of all the sources that you use.
Make sure that you include in your notes, or on any photocopies, the full reference
details of each source that you use. This will ensure that you have all the
information you need to acknowledge your sources fully when you come to use this
material in your own work. Keeping a record of these details also helps you to find
the source again if you need to refer to it, and will also form the basis of your
reference list.

While reading, you need to record specific information for each source including.

 Book - Author, Title of Book, Place of Publication, Date of Publication

 Journal Article - Author, Title of Article, Title of Journal, Volume, Issue

No, Page numbers

 Website - Author (if available), Date, Title of the source, Retrieval

information

Understanding how to use and appropriately acknowledge your debt to the work of
others is an essential step in learning how to avoid plagiarism.

3.5.2. Use your own words and develop your own writing style

As an ESOL learner’s first language is not English, and he/she has not yet
completely fluent, it can be very tempting to borrow a well expressed sentence or
even a paragraph from another writer. However, this is plagiarism, and lecturers
would much prefer to receive a piece of work in your own, if imperfect, style than
to read chunks of text in perfect English that are clearly taken from another writer.
When you are reading and researching for a piece of written work, try to use your
own words in your notes to summaries your reading, and include your own ideas
and comments on each text that you read, then practise and establish your writing
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style, you will become more confident about expressing your thoughts and ideas in
your own way.

3.5.3. Express your own views

Many students are hesitant about expressing their own opinion, particularly if it
contradicts the views of 'experts'. However, a book or journal is not necessary to be
always right because it is published and printed. In the humanities and social
sciences in particular, much academic writing is based on informed opinion rather
than indisputable fact. Do not be afraid to have your own views on a subject. What
is important is that your views should be informed, clearly expressed and based on
careful consideration and knowledge of both the relevant facts and of the views of
those who are acknowledged to have expertise on the topic.

3.5.4. Do not copy a paragraph, or even a couple of sentences, word for word
without using quotation marks and without citing the source in the body of your
assignment.

Many students think that they are criticized as being plagiarizing only when they
download an entire essay, report or paper from the internet, or copy out pages and
pages from a book. Infact, copying even a paragraph or a sentence, without
acknowledgement, is also plagiarism. It is no good just changing a few words or
altering the order of certain phrases – if the idea or intent of what you are saying is
someone else’s then it has to be acknowledged by citation and referencing.
Paraphrasing and summarizing of another’s work must be acknowledged. Besides,
if you refer to certain material more than once, the source has to be acknowledged
in the body of your paper each time. Furthermore, you cannot simply list your
sources at the end of your paper (in the references section). You must also indicate
in the body of your paper where you have used the words of others. Hence, after

25
writing remember to spend time to check whether your references list and in-text
citation are matched.

3.5.5. Use reliable and scientific material from the internet.

It is so easy to cut and paste from the internet, thus some students use a bit from
here and a bit from there. But your markers will notice, and it does matter. Internet,
Wikipedia, and Google are useful searching tools to support you with the reading
references, do not use them for cutting and pasting purpose (see more at section
5.2)

3.5.6. Collusion and avoiding collusion

Another serious academic offence is collusion - acting with another person with the
intention to deceive. At university, it means submitting the work of someone else,
with their knowledge and consent. Sometimes you find you and your friend(s) write
on the same topic. Although you can share your references (this is encouraged), this
does not mean that your assignments should be, or will be, the same. Hence:

- Do not submit work that is identical to that of another student (with

the exception of group work) in part or in whole.

- Do not ‘borrow’ a paragraph or two from someone else.

- Do not submit the work of another student under your name – even if
that student does not mind that you do so.

3.6. Some more questions you may want to ask

Questions 1: If I pay for written service what they ask to have an assignment,
that’s not plagiarism, is it?

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