The theory of Forms in Plato's Phaedo

and Menon
Claudia Fernández Villamayor

1. Introduction to Plato's Dialogues

Plato was a Greek philosopher who was born around 428/27 BC in Athens into an aristocratic
family environment which allowed him to have a comprehensive education (grammar, rhetoric,
music, poetry, etc.) focused on a future political life, which, at that time, was marked by both the
Peloponnesian War and the decline of Athenian democracy, and which he eventually abandoned,
although it was always present in his thought in one form or another. From the age of 20, Plato
began to frequent Socrates' circle, openly confronted the Sophists and became one of his closest
disciples until his death sentence in 399. After the death of his master, which was to leave a
profound mark on his life, he made a series of journeys through the East (Egypt) and southern
Italy that led him to various centers of knowledge of the time. After a bad experience in Syracuse,
he returned to Athens, and around 387, Plato founded the Academy, an institution intended to
provide a complete philosophical education, where all kinds of subjects were investigated and
studied. In a short time, the Platonic Academy gained recognition in the educational life of
Athens, and little by little the different specialized branches of knowledge emerged, offering a
varied set of disciplines ranging from dialectics to mathematics, music, astronomy and physics.
The Academy was to last for more than 900 years, and one of its most prominent pupils was
Aristotle.

Plato has bequeathed us an immense philosophical oeuvre (unlike his master Socrates) preserved
for the most part in the form of dialogues. This novel way of expounding philosophical thought
is one of its defining characteristics, leaving behind simple enunciation to give way to an
exchange of different points of view and the emergence of debates between different
interlocutors. Platonic dialectic is defined, first of all, by Socratic questioning, i.e. a method
characterized by the use of interrogation, where Socrates asks questions that challenge his
interlocutors to define their terms and clarify their ideas. This process helps to reveal unexamined
contradictions and assumptions in the arguments presented. Second, the use of irony; Socrates
often feigns ignorance (known as Socratic irony) to motivate his interlocutors to explain his views
in depth. This allows for a more rigorous examination of ideas and promotes a more open and
exploratory dialogue. Thirdly, the maieutic, which symbolizes how Socrates helped his
interlocutors to ‘give birth’ to truths that already lay dormant in their minds. This aspect of the
dialectic emphasizes the development of inner knowledge rather than the transmission of
information from one party to another. Finally, it is noteworthy how, through the dialogue, Plato
guides his readers from the world of appearances and perceptions to an understanding of the Ideal
Forms, such as Truth, Beauty and Justice, which are absolute, eternal and immutable. The
purpose of Platonic dialectic is not merely to refute arguments or demonstrate intellectual
superiority, but to foster a genuine pursuit of wisdom. Plato believes that, through this rigorous
and structured method, it is possible to access a higher level of knowledge that is beyond what
can be achieved through sensory experience or mere opinion.

The 26 demonstrably authentic Platonic dialogues are categorized into three main groups: early,
middle and late. Each of these groups reflects a different stage in the development of Plato's
thought, showing an evolution in his ideas and philosophical methodology. Plato's early
dialogues, including The Apology, Crito, and Euthyphro, focus on moral investigations following
the Socratic method. The clear influence of Socrates' teachings is exposed through the use of
Socratic-style interrogative dialogues and the use of irony on issues of virtue and ethics. These
dialogues are typically exploratory and less doctrinal, often ending in aporia, that is, in a state of
uncertainty or doubt with no clear resolution. In the middle dialogues such as The Republic,
Phaedo, The Banquet or Phaedrus, Plato develops his own most distinctive philosophical theories
and concepts, including his theory of the Forms. These dialogues show a Plato who distances
himself somewhat from the historical figures and enters more into the realm of abstract
philosophical speculation. They are characterized by a more systematic development of ideas
about justice, love, virtue, and the ideal structure of the state and the soul. Finally, the later texts,
such as Parmenides, Theaetetus, Sophist, or Laws, reflect a greater philosophical maturity and a
focus on more complex and detailed themes. At this stage, Plato examines his own theories and
subjects them to more rigorous criticism. These texts often address metaphysical, ethical and
mathematical problems at a greater level of depth. Dialectic is presented as a more sophisticated
and structured method.

2
As I mentioned earlier, Athens in the 5th and 4th century BC was a period of intense political
and social activity. Plato lived through the Peloponnesian War, the tyranny of the Thirty and the
restoration of democracy. These events profoundly influenced his distrust of Athenian
democracy, as reflected in his writings, especially in ‘The Republic’, where he proposes a state
ruled by philosopher-kings instead of democracy. Moreover, one of his main influences was his
teacher Socrates. The Socratic methodology of constant questioning and his condemnation and
execution by the Athenian state left an indelible mark on Plato, who devoted much of his work
to developing and defending his master's ideas, while expanding and formalizing his teachings
into a cohesive philosophical system. He also drew on other pre-Socratic and contemporary
thinkers, such as the Pythagoreans, from whom he adopted the idea that number and proportion
constitute the very essence of reality. This influence is evident in his conception of the Forms
and in his interest in mathematics as the foundation of true knowledge. In addition, his access to
education from an aristocratic family played a crucial role in the development of Plato's thought.
He was educated in poetry, gymnastics and philosophy, which is reflected in the highly literary
structure of his dialogues and in his concern with morals and ethics. Moreover, the cultural
environment of Athens, which highly valued poetry, drama and the visual arts, influenced his
conception of aesthetics and his philosophy of art.

2. First steps to understanding the concept of Form or Idea according

To understand Plato's theory of Forms in its totality, linked to his conception of the soul and his
theory of knowledge, I will use as a reference the chapter ‘The Unfolding Account of Forms in
the Phaedo’ written by David Ebrey, and the essay ‘An Introduction to Plato's Theory of Forms’
by David Sedley, where a detailed analysis of this theory is made, which is one of the fundamental
pillars in western philosophy and essential to understand the thought of this philosopher, since it
establishes the bases and solid foundations for his search for true knowledge and his ethics. This
theory arises as a response to the problem between Parmenides and Heraclitus, that is, about the
problem between the One and the Multiple, where Plato tried to position himself in an
intermediate point trying to reconcile these two opposing philosophers.

3
Plato presents his theory of ontological dualism in which he argues that there are two completely
different realities ontologically, i.e. the universe has two structures. One of them is material which
is perceived through the senses (the sensible or physical world) and the other is immaterial (the
intelligible world or the world of Forms), which may remind us of Pythagorean thought. The
physical or sensible plane implies a mere appearance of reality and corresponds to what we see,
hear, touch, smell or eat. Plato identifies it with the body, something earthly and mere appearance.
These objects are imperfect and subject to constant change and corruption, where things are born
and die. In contrast, the world of Forms is beyond what we can perceive with the senses. Para
llegar a este nivel es necesario el conocimiento, experiencia vital y reflexión profunda. El filósofo
lo identifica con el alma. Las Formas son perfectas e inmutables, es decir, no cambian siendo
perfectas y eternas. Estas no son perceptibles a través de los sentidos, que solo captan el mundo
físico y cambiante. Solo pueden ser comprendidas a través de la razón y del intelecto, lo que
requiere un tipo de conocimiento más profundo y filosófico que la mera percepción sensorial.
Según Platón, ilustrándonos a través del mito de la caverna, el mundo sensible es una mera copia,
es una realidad de sombras, siendo jerárquicamente inferior al mundo de las Formas formado por
ideas, almas y entidades matemáticas, el cual se considera como el plano real y perfecto.

Forms have a very specific nature and characteristics. They exist by themselves, i.e. they are not
something that is fabricated by our mind. Moreover, they exist independently of the subject and
the object that knows them. They are universal, which means that each of them encapsulates the
essence of a property that can manifest itself in multiple particular objects. For example, the Form
of Beauty is found in all things we consider beautiful, without being limited to any specific object.
Moreover, unlike the objects of the sensible world, which are imperfect and subject to change
and decay, Forms are perfect and immutable. They do not change with time or decay. They are
immutable, that is, they do not change, being eternal and constant. This is in stark contrast to the
sensible world, where everything is subject to change and corruption. It is important to note also
the existing ontological separation, i.e., the Forms exist on a plane of reality that is ontologically
distinct from the world of physical objects. Although the Forms are reflected in these objects,
they are not contained in them, nor do they depend on them for their existence. The Forms would
be the essence of the things that exist in the sensible world, constituting the true Being of things,
their causes. Everything in the sensible world imitates or participates in the world of the Forms.

4
It should be noted that the Forms, being immutable and eternal, are not perceptible through the
senses, which only grasp the physical and changing world. They can only be understood through
reason and intellect, which requires a deeper and more philosophical kind of knowledge than
mere sensory perception. We can say that there is a Form for each kind of thing, for example, the
object chair corresponds to a Form of chair, but its essence is not to be found in the object but in
the Form of the intelligible world. The Forms are ordered hierarchically, the supreme Idea being
the Idea of the Good, which Plato will identify with the idea of Beauty and the idea of Truth.

The theory of the Forms constitutes the fundamental nucleus of Platonic thought, unfolding in
four dimensions. On the ontological level it is stated that the Forms are considered the true reality,
they are the Being as Being of things, the Forms being the only truly real thing. In the
epistemological dimension, the Forms are the objective of authentic knowledge. On the ethical
level, the reason for the Forms will be questioned, in particular, about the Idea of Good, since
this will be the basis of ethics. Finally, the political dimension will reason about why the
intelligible world should be the structure to be followed by the Greek polis.

3. Distinction between Forms and Sensible Objects

As we have just seen, Plato distinguishes two modes of reality, one called intelligible, the other
called sensible, which are ontologically distinct and have different characteristics. The Forms
exist on a plane of reality which is completely different from that of physical objects. This plane
is not subject to the laws of physics or temporal change, and the Forms residing there provide the
perfect archetypes of which physical objects are merely imperfect copies. They are the foundation
of physical realities, i.e., although Forms and physical objects are ontologically distinct, the
Forms act as the true and eternal foundation of all the properties we perceive in the physical
world. Not only are they distinct from physical objects, but they also function causally. Forms
provide the ultimate reasons why physical objects acquire their defining characteristics. For
example, Beauty is the cause of any object in the sensible world being recognised as beautiful.

5
The Forms, in so far as they are the term of the universal definition, represent the ‘essences’ of
the objects of knowledge, that is to say, that which is included in the concept; but with the
particularity that they cannot be confused with the concept, so that the Platonic Forms are not
mental contents, but objects to which the mental contents designated by the concept refer, and
which we express through language. These Forms or ‘essences’ subsist independently of whether
or not they are thought, they are something distinct from thought. The Forms are unique, eternal
and immutable and, like Parmenides' being, cannot be the object of sensible knowledge, but can
only be cognised by reason. Not being the object of sensibility, they cannot be material. They are
entities that have a real existence independent of both the subject that thinks them and the object
of which they are the essence, thus endowing them with a transcendent character. Moreover, the
Forms are the model or archetype of things, so that sensible reality is the result of the copy or
imitation of the Ideas. For the pluralist philosophers, the relationship between being and the world
as we perceive it was the product of the mixture and separation of the original elements (the four
elements of Empedocles, the seeds of Anaxagoras or the atoms of Democritus); Plato must also
explain the relationship between this immutable being and the reality subject to change, between
the Forms and things. This relationship is explained as imitation or participation: things imitate
the Forms or participate in them. The Forms, moreover, are hierarchical. The first rank
corresponds to the Form of Good, which represents the highest degree of reality, being the cause
of all that exists. This he identifies with the idea of Beauty and Truth, i.e. the Forms of ethical
and aesthetic objects, followed by those of mathematical objects and finally of things. Plato also
tried to establish a certain communication between the Forms and, according to Aristotle, ended
up identifying the Ideas with the numbers, an identification that we do know was made by the
continuators of Platonic activity in the Academy. In addition to the idea that the Forms exist as
abstract entities, it is also argued that they act as fundamental causes of the properties we observe
in the physical world. This causality is crucial for understanding the relationship between Forms
and ordinary objects, since it suggests that everything we perceive in the sensible world is an
imperfect manifestation of these eternal and perfect Forms. This view introduces an ontological
and epistemological dimension that underlies many of the ethical and metaphysical discussions
in Plato's later works.

Forms are not merely categories or classifications of similar objects; they are the real and
transcendental causes of all the characteristics that physical objects manifest. For example, the
Form of Beauty is not just a concept of what is beautiful, but the real cause by which any physical

6
object is perceived as beautiful. This causality is not physical, but metaphysical, operating from
a higher level of reality. As we have seen, unlike objects in the physical world, Forms are
immutable and perfect. They do not change or degrade over time, which makes them reliable and
consistent sources of the qualities they cause in the sensible world. For example, the Form of
Beauty is eternally beautiful, and any change in the perception of beauty in the sensible world
does not affect its perfection or reality. Moreover, they exist independently of the physical objects
they cause. That is, the Form of Beauty exists even if no currently beautiful physical object exists.
This independence underlines the eternal and non-contingent nature of the Forms, which means
that they are universal and eternal truths that do not depend on the existence or state of any object
in the sensible world. Although the Forms themselves are inaccessible directly through the
senses, they interact with the sensible world in a way that allows human beings to have
knowledge of them through reason. Plato suggests that this interaction is made possible by the
soul's ability to remember the Forms, which is seen in the argument from anamnesis that I will
develop in the next section. By defining the Forms as the causes of all physical characteristics,
Plato establishes a basis for philosophical and scientific enquiry that seeks to understand not only
what things are, but why they are the way they are. This leads to a quest for knowledge that
transcends sensory experience and enters into the contemplation of abstract and universal
realities.

4. True knowledge in Plato

The philosopher solves the problem of change through this theory of Ideas, asserting that there is
an intelligible world of Ideas, which is the true reality. We can only know precisely that which
does not change, that which does not move, that which remains always the same. The eternal,
immutable, simple, indivisible, perfect and immaterial Ideas constitute the true Being (they
contain the characteristics of Parmenides' Being), the true reality, and only their knowledge gives
us episteme, true knowledge. The material or sensible world is an imperfect world of appearances
and its objects are imperfect, mutable, divisible, subject to change, transformation, corruption
because the matter of which they are constituted is imperfect.

7
Plato's rejection of sense perception as a means of understanding the Forms is a key component
of his epistemological theory. According to Plato, the senses are limited to perceiving the physical
world, which is changeable and subject to corruption and illusion. In contrast, true and reliable
knowledge must transcend these limitations and access a more stable and pure plane of reality:
that of the Forms. The human body is complex in its own right, yet for Plato, the pre-eminence
of the soul over the body is central to his thinking. Why does he regard the body as an obstacle
to the soul? In his work, a recurring idea emerges of ‘separating’, ‘purifying’ and ‘freeing’ the
soul from bodily bonds. According to Plato, the soul is indivisible and independent, in stark
contrast to the body, which is subject to pleasures, desires and needs that often dominate the
human being, thus preventing him from accessing the truth.

The philosopher argues that relying on the senses leads to a mistaken knowledge of reality, as the
senses are inherently deceptive and do not offer reliable truths. He questions whether the soul is
capable of apprehending truth, since, when one attempts to examine something with the body, it
is clearly deceived by the body. Thus, the soul attains true understanding when it frees itself from
sensory distractions and bodily pleasures or pains, focusing only on itself, in its purest form and
isolated from physical influences. Similarly, Plato points out how physiological needs such as
hunger require attention and care, which entails devoting time and effort to them, distracting the
soul from its search for truth, which is its true yearning. Furthermore, he points out that
phenomena that today we would describe as mental, such as desires, fears and affections, have
their origin in the body. This validates his characterisation of the body as an impediment to the
soul, and justifies Plato's negative view of the corporeal in contrast to his exaltation of the soul.
Plato emphasises the superiority of the soul, relegating the body to a contemptuous and
disparaging tone, establishing the fact that the definitive separation of soul and body occurs only
with death.

In contrast to the deceptive senses, Plato argues that the intellect (or reason) has the capacity to
perceive the Forms directly. This access is not physical but intellectual and is achieved through
the use of reason, reflection and, crucially, through the process of dialectic, which is the method
of rational questioning and analysis. The theory of anamnesis, or recollection, which we will see
below, argues that learning is actually the process of remembering what the soul already knows.
The intellect, interacting with the Forms before incarnating in a physical body, retains an innate

8
knowledge of these eternal and perfect realities. The process of education, then, is a process of
guiding the soul to remember what it already knows. For Plato, the path to true knowledge and
wisdom necessarily involves the rejection of sensory data as the basis of understanding and the
adoption of a rational, dialectical approach that seeks access to the transcendental world of Forms.
This approach not only elevates the status of the philosopher, but also underpins his vision of a
just and well-ordered society, guided by principles that are universal and eternal.

5. The theory of reminiscence or anamnesis

During his dialogues, in particular the Phaedo, the immortality of the soul is discussed as the
main theme. Discussions of the Forms are closely linked to arguments about the immortality of
the soul. Plato uses the theory of the Forms to argue that the soul, by participating in the eternal
(the Forms), must itself be eternal. This connection between the Forms and the soul highlights
the relevance of the Forms not only to metaphysical questions but also to ethical and spiritual
questions, reflecting the Platonic belief that philosophy is a preparation for death and a life well
lived. Plato demonstrates through logical reasoning that the human soul has an immortal part that
remains immanent beyond the cycles of life and death. As the soul is immortal and likewise of
divine origin, he makes us see that in it lies knowledge. In the dialogue of the Menon we can find
a well-known fragment where he expounds the theory of reminiscence on the basis of the belief
in the transmigration and immortality of the soul. Here he explains his theory of how human
beings acquire knowledge. He intends to show that knowledge comes from before and is intrinsic
in our souls. Because our souls have inhabited different bodies and have experienced the same
things many times, not only on earth but also on the intelligible plane, in Hades, their knowledge
was already latent. So this knowledge of things consists in remembering what the soul already
knew. Being on the divine plane and having learnt everything on earth, the soul can learn
anything, however difficult it may seem. However, that which men call learning is nothing else
than reminiscence, that is, the act of remembering what the soul already knew.

The reminiscence is also proved by the example of the servant that is glimpsed in the same
dialogue of the Menon, where Socrates asks questions to one of Menon's servants, who had never

9
been taught anything about geometry. As Socrates asks the servant questions, the servant answers
many of them correctly. Thus they realise that this man seems to know about such matters of
geometry. However, Socrates says, the man is actually remembering, retrieving from himself that
knowledge which his soul already possessed. If the truth of things is always in our soul, it is
therefore immortal. So, the sensible thing would be that what we do not know, or rather, do not
remember, we set ourselves the task of seeking it out and thus remembering it.

It is not only in the Menon that this idea of reminiscence is expounded, but also in the Phaedo we
find references to it. As our souls already had this principle of knowledge, reminiscence allows
us to remember or evoke memories by means of thought. Therefore, we can refer to those past
experiences or acts that we can remember by means of a mental process, and also to abstract
knowledge that is true in itself. The Platonic view implies that this knowledge is not in the
material, physical world that surrounds us. Rather, real knowledge is to be found in the world of
ideas. The argument not only has theoretical implications; it also has profound ethical and
practical significance. By understanding that true knowledge comes from the remembrance of
the Forms, the search for good and truth beyond the distractions and limitations of the sensible
world is encouraged. This process is essential for the purification of the soul, which Plato
considers the ultimate goal of the philosophical life.

6. Conclusion

In the study of Plato's dialogues, Phaedo and Menon are crucial works that show the depth of
Plato's philosophical thought and his exploration of fundamental themes such as the soul, virtue,
knowledge and immortality. These texts not only theorise on these matters; they present detailed
arguments and discussions that seek to answer some of the most complex questions about human
nature. Using the figure of Socrates, Plato challenges pre-existing ideas and presents a method of
analysis and questioning that has greatly influenced Western philosophy.

Plato's dialogue Phaedo focuses on the last hours of Socrates before his death and offers a
profound philosophical analysis of the soul, immortality, and the Forms. The importance of the

10
Phaedo in the study of the Forms lies in its detailed exploration of how these abstract and perfect
entities relate to the physical and sensible world. This dialogue is crucial for several reasons; first,
the Phaedo is one of the first dialogues to deal extensively with the theory of Forms, a central
theme in Platonic philosophy. In this dialogue, Plato not only introduces the Forms as abstract
concepts, but also discusses their application in arguments about life, death and the immortality
of the soul. This broad approach allows for a richer and deeper understanding of how Plato
conceives of the relationship between the ethereal (the Forms) and the earthly (physical objects).

Furthermore, the Forms, despite being abstract and eternal entities, directly influence our
understanding of the world and our conduct within it. For example, the discussion of the
immortality of the soul in the dialogue is based on the premise that the soul has an intrinsic
relationship with the Forms, implying that it is of a higher and more enduring nature than
perishable physical objects. This connection points to the fact that true knowledge and virtue are
linked to the soul's ability to associate with the Forms, and not with the physical, sensible world.
Plato uses the Phaedo as an explicit articulation of Platonic dualism, as well as arguing that the
Forms are the true objects of knowledge and that any genuine understanding must be directed
towards them. For example, the search for justice in the sensible world is ultimately a search for
an understanding of the Form of Justice. This quest has not only epistemological but also ethical
implications, since living a good and just life requires an understanding of what these Forms
represent in their eternal perfection. The dialogue provides a clear foundation for the belief that
true knowledge comes from an understanding of the Forms, not from sensory experience of the
physical world.

In Menon, on the other hand, it addresses fundamental questions about the teaching of virtue,
leading to a deeper reflection on the nature of human knowledge and its acquisition. Through the
interaction between Socrates and Menon, Plato explores the possibility that knowledge is innate
and accessible through the process of anamnesis, or recollection. This idea is central to
understanding how Plato conceives of education and learning, proposing that true knowledge
already resides within us and is remembered rather than relearned. This dialogue is an excellent
example of the Socratic method of questioning, which seeks to arrive at truth through questions
and answers. This not only illustrates how Socrates taught, but also promotes a critical and
analytical approach to learning and knowledge, as well as uncovering fundamental truths. In

11
addition, the Menon also inquiries into the relationship between knowledge and virtue,
questioning whether being virtuous is simply a matter of possessing wisdom. This discussion
raises questions about the nature of virtue and whether it can be taught, which in turn leads to an
exploration of whether virtue is a form of knowledge or whether it is more related to innate moral
dispositions. This dialogue is significant not only for its philosophical content, but also for how
Plato uses the figure of Socrates to challenge perceptions and stimulate in-depth analysis of
ethical and epistemological concepts. The exploration of these themes in the Menon makes an
important contribution to the philosophical debate on education, ethics and the nature of
knowledge, making this text a key piece in the study of ancient philosophy and its influence on
Western thought.

7. Bibliography

- Ebrey, D. (2022). The Unfolding Account of Forms in the Phaedo. En Cambridge

- Farieta, A. (2013). Conocimiento, descubrimiento y reminiscencia en el Menón de

- Macintosh, D. (2012). Plato: a theory of forms. Philosophy Now, 90, 6-7.

- Mason, A. (2014). Plato. Routledge.

- Molina, A. I. (1998). Introducción al estudio de la reminiscencia platónica. Panta Rei.

- Platón. (2023). Fedón. RBA Libros y Publicaciones.

- Platon. (2016). Menon. BoD – Books on Demand.

- Ryle, G. (1939). Plato'sParamenides'. Mind, 48(190), 129-151.

- Sedley, D. (2016). An Introduction to Plato’s Theory of Forms. Royal Institute Of

- Vargas Pérez, A. (2000). Platón, el saber y la reminiscencia

12