5.

1 Diode and Rectifiers

EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Contents
• Introduction to Semiconductors
• PN Junction
• PN Junction Diode
• IV characteristics of PN Junction Diode
• Applications of Diode
 Half-wave rectifier
 Full wave Rectifier with center-tap transformer
 Full wave Bridge Rectifier

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials

• Twotypes of semiconducting materials : silicon and germanium

– both have four valance electrons

• When silicon and germanium atoms combine into molecules to

form a solid material, they arrange themselves in a fixed pattern
called a crystal
– atoms within the crystal structure are held together by covalent
bonds (atoms share valence electrons)

• An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials..
Diagrams of the silicon and germanium atoms

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials..

Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal. The actual crystal is 3-dimensional.

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials..

Modified Semiconductor Materials

• Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconducting materials
to increase and control conductivity within the material.

 n-type material is formed by adding pentavalent (5 valence electrons) impurity

atoms (Pentavalent impurities : Phosphorous , Arsenic, Antimony)
-- electrons are called majority carriers in n-type material
-- holes are called minority carriers in n-type material

 p-type material is formed by adding trivalent (3 valence electrons) impurity

atoms (Tri-valent impurities : Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al))
-- holes are called majority carriers in p-type material
-- electrons are called minority carriers in p-type material

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Introduction to Semiconductor Materials..

Modified Semiconductor Materials

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 P-N Junction
• A p-n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors together
in very close contact.

• The term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of the
semiconductor meet.

• p-n junctions are created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping, for

example, by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a
layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped
with another type of dopant)

• p-n junctions are elementary “building blocks” of almost all semiconductor

electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated
circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes
place.

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 p-n junction in thermal equilibrium: with zero bias voltage applied
• The regions nearby the p-n interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming
the space charge region or depletion layer
• The electric field created by the
space charge region opposes the
diffusion process for both electrons
and holes.
• There are two concurrent
phenomena: the diffusion process
that tends to generate more space
charge, and the electric field
generated by the space charge that
tends to counteract the diffusion.

• The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or
acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion.
• When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step
function.
• The region is completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to
the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neutral
region is quite sharp.
• The space charge region has the same charge on both sides of the p-n interfaces, thus it
extends farther on the less doped side.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Forward biasing of p-n junction
• When external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels
the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow is called forward biasing.
• To apply forward bias, connect +ve terminal of the battery to p-type and –ve terminal to n-
type .
• The applied forward potential establishes the electric field which acts against the field due
to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field is weakened and the barrier height is
reduced at the junction.
• Since the potential barrier voltage is very small, a small forward voltage is sufficient to
completely eliminate the barrier.

• Once the potential barrier is eliminated by

the forward voltage, junction resistance
becomes almost zero and a low resistance
path is established for the entire circuit.
Therefore, current flows in the circuit. This
is called forward current.

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Reverse biasing of p-n junction
• When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction the potential
barrier is increased it is called reverse biasing.

• To apply reverse bias, connect –ve terminal of the battery to p-type and +ve terminal to
n-type .

• The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction
as the field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is
strengthened and the barrier height is increased.

• The increased potential barrier

prevents the flow of charge carriers
across the junction. Thus, a high
resistance path is established for the
entire circuit and hence current does
not flow.

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

VOLT-AMPERE (V-I ) CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTI ON DIODE
• The V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be obtained with the help of the
circuit .

• The supply voltage V is a regulated power supply, the diode is forward biased in the
circuit shown. The resistor R is a current limiting resistor.
• The voltage across the diode is measured with the help of voltmeter and the current is
recorded using an ammeter.
• By varying the supply voltage different sets of voltage and currents are obtained.
• By plotting these values on a graph, the forward characteristics can be obtained. It can
be noted from the graph the current remains zero till the diode voltage attains the
barrier potential.
• For silicon diode, the barrier potential is 0.7 V and for germanium diode, it is 0.3 V.
The barrier potential is also called knee voltage or cut-in voltage.
• The reverse characteristics can be obtained by reverse biasing the diode. It can be
noted that at a particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increases rapidly. This
voltage is called breakdown voltage.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 DIODE CURRENT EQUATION
I-V Characteristics of a Real Diode
 VD nVT 
I D  I s  e  1
 
- ID is the total diode current
- Is reverse saturation current
- VD applied voltage across the diode
- n an ideality factor, value between 1&2.
- VT thermal voltage:

kT k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

VT  q = 1.6x10-19 C
q

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 DIODE CURRENT EQUATION
With Zero Voltage:

 V 
 
D

VD  0,  I D  I s  e nVT 
1  I s e 1  0
0
 
Forward-Biased:  
-Under forward-biased condition, VD > 0.
-When VD >> nVT, then

VD VD

e nVT
 1 and ID  ISe nVT

Reversed-Biased:
-Under reverse-biased condition, VD < 0.
-When VD << nVT, then

VD

e nVT
 1 and I D  I S 5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 I-V Characteristics

 V D

I D  I s  e nVT
 1
VD

ID  ISe nVT

 

I D  I S

When VD < VZK, the diode enters the breakdown region, the reverse current
increases sharply. VZK is known as the zener knee voltage.

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Basic Definitions
• Knee Voltage or Cut-in Voltage
It is the forward voltage at which the diode starts conducting.
• Breakdown Voltage
It is the reverse voltage at which the diode (p-n junction) breaks down with a sudden
rise in reverse current.
• Peak-inverse Voltage (PIV)
It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to a p-n junction without causing
damage to the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its peak inverse
voltage, then the junction exceeds its peak-inverse voltage, and the junction gets
destroyed because of excessive heat. In rectification, care should be taken that reverse
voltage across the diode during –ve half cycle of ac doesn’t exceed the peak-inverse
voltage of the diode.
• Maximum Forward Current
It is the maximum instantaneous forward current that a p-n junction can conduct
without damaging the junction. If the forward current is more than the specified rating
then the junction gets destroyed due to overheating.
• Maximum Power Rating
It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without damaging it.
The power dissipated across the junction is equal to the product of junction current and
the voltage across the junction.

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESISTANCE OF A DIODE

DC or Static Resistance

When diode is forward biased, it offers a definite

resistance in the circuit. This resistance is known as
dc resistance or static resistance (RF). It is simply
the ratio of the dc voltage (VD) across the diode to
the dc current (ID) flowing through it.

AC or Dynamic Resistance

The ac or dynamic resistance of a diode, at a

particular dc voltage, is equal to the reciprocal
of the slope of the characteristics at that point

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier is shown along with the I/P and O/P
Waveforms.

• The transformer is employed in order to step-down the supply voltage.

• The diode is used to rectify the ac signal while the pulsating dc is taken across the load
resistor RL. During the +ve half-cycle, the end X of the secondary is +ve and end Y is –ve.
Thus, forward biasing the diode.
• As the diode is forward biased, the current flows through the load RL and a voltage is
developed across it.
• During the –ve half-cycle the end Y is +ve and end X is –ve thus, reverse biasing the
diode. As the diode is reverse biased there is no flow of current through RL thereby the
output voltage is zero.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Efficiency of a Half wave Rectifier

dc Power ac Power Input

The efficiency is maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL.

Therefore, maximum rectifier efficiency = 40.6%
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Ripple Factor
• The pulsating output of a rectifier consists of dc component and ac component (also known
as ripple). The ac component is undesirable and accounts for the pulsations in the rectifier
output. The effectiveness of a rectifier depends on the magnitude of ac component in the
output : the smaller this component, the more effective is the rectifier. “ The ratio of rms
value of ac component to the dc component in the rectifier output is known as ripple
factor”.

Ripple Factor for Half-wave Rectification

OR 𝑰𝒂𝒄 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒓𝒎𝒔 − 𝑰𝟐 𝒅𝒄

It is clear that ac component exceeds dc component in the output of a half-wave rectifier.

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Transformer utilization factor
Transformer utilization factor is a quantitative indication of the utilization of VA Rating of
Transformer. The more the value of TUF, the more will be the utilization. In other words,
the VA rating of required transformer will be less if TUF is more and vice versa.

DC Power Output, Pdc = Average Current x Average Voltage

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) of Half Wave Rectifier
• DC Power Output, Pdc = Average Current x Average Voltage
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 …………………(1)
𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑿
𝝅 𝝅
• VA rating of Transformer
• The voltage of source is sinusoidal, therefore its rms value will be equal to
(Vm/√2).
• The rms value of the source current will be equal to the rms value of the load
current. As the rms value of load current for half wave rectifier is equal to
(Im/2), therefore the rms value of source current will also be equal to (Im/2).

𝑽𝒎𝑰𝒎
𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑿 …………………(2)
√𝟐 𝟐

From equation (1) and (2)

𝟐√𝟐
𝑻𝑼𝑭 = π𝟐
= 0.285

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
Full-wave rectifiers are of two types:
1. Centre tapped full-wave rectifier 2. Bridge rectifier
Centre Tapped Full-wave Rectifier
• It employs two diodes and a centre tap transformer. The ac signal to be rectified is
applied to the primary of the transformer and the dc output is taken across the load, RL.
• During the +ve half-cycle end X is +ve and end Y is –ve. This makes diode D1 forward
biased and thus a current i1 flows through it and load resistor RL. Diode D2 is reverse
biased and the current i2 is zero.
• During the –ve half-cycle end Y is +ve and end X is –ve. Now diode D2 is forward biased
and thus a current i2 flows through it and load resistor RL. Diode D1 is reversed and the
current i1 = 0.
Disadvantages
• Since each diode uses only
one-half of the transformer
secondary voltage the dc
I1 output is comparatively small.
• It is difficult to locate the
centre-tap on secondary
winding of the transformer.
I1
• The diodes used must have
high peak-inverse voltage

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
• It uses four diodes and one transformer.
• During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is –ve thus diodes D1 and D3 are
forward bias while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased thus a current flows through
diode D1, load RL (C to D) and diode D3.
• During the –ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is –ve thus diodes D2 and D4 are
forward biased while the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Now the flow of current is
through diode D4 load RL (D to C) and diode D2. Thus, the waveform is same as in the
case of centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.

Advantages
• The need for centre-tapped transformer is eliminated.
• The output is twice when compared to centre-tapped full-wave rectifier, for the same
secondary voltage.
• The peak inverse voltage is one-half (1/2) compared to centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.
• Can be used where large amount of power is required.
Disadvantages: • It requires four diodes. • The use of two extra diodes causes an additional
voltage drop thereby reducing the output voltage.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Efficiency of Full-wave Rectifier

ac power output

dc power output

The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL. Hence, maximum

efficiency = 81.2%. This is double the efficiency due to half-wave rectifier. Therefore, a full-
wave rectifier is twice as effective as a half-wave rectifier.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
Ripple Factor for Full-wave Rectification

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
• DC Power Output, Pdc = Average Current x Average Voltage
𝟐𝑽𝒎 𝟐𝑰𝒎…………………(1)
𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑿
𝝅 𝝅
• VA rating of Transformer
• The voltage of source is sinusoidal, therefore its rms value will be equal to
(Vm/√2).
• The current in each of the transformer secondary only flows for half cycle,
therefore its rms value will be (Im/2).
𝑽𝒎 𝑰 𝒎
VA rating of each of the Transformer Secondary 𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑿
√𝟐 𝟐
Total VA rating of each of the Transformer Secondary 𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎𝑰𝒎
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟐 𝑿 𝟐 = √𝟐
√𝟐

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎𝑰𝒎
VA Rating of Transformer Primary: 𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = √𝟐
𝑿 √𝟐= 𝟐

Effective VA Ratio of Transformer = (Primary VA + Secondary VA)/2 = 0.6035VmIm

TUF of Center Tapped Rectifier = [(4ImVm )/π2] / [0.6035VmIm] = 0.672

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) of bridge Full Wave Rectifier

• DC Power Output, Pdc = Average Current x Average Voltage

𝟐𝑽𝒎 𝟐𝑰𝒎…………………(1)
𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑿
𝝅 𝝅
• VA rating of Transformer
• The voltage of source is sinusoidal, therefore its rms value will be equal to
(Vm/√2).
• The current is flowing in the entire secondary winding during positive and
negative half cycle..

𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑿
√𝟐 𝟐

TUF of Center Tapped Rectifier = [(4ImVm )/π2] / [ImVm/2] = 0.816

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 Comparison of Rectifiers

8. TUF 0.285 0.672 0.810

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE

 FILTERS
• The output of the rectifier is pulsating dc, i.e., the output obtained by the
rectifier is not pure dc but it contains some ac components along with the dc
o/p. These ac components are called ripples, which are undesirable or unwanted.
• To minimize the ripples in the rectifier output filter circuits are used. These
circuits are normally connected between the rectifier and load

• Filter is a circuit which converts pulsating dc output from a rectifier to a steady

dc output. In other words, filters are used to reduce the amplitudes of the
unwanted ac components in the rectifier.
• Types of Filters
1. Capacitor filter (C-filter) 2. Inductor filter
3. Choke input filter (LC-filter) 4. Capacitor input filter ( Π filter)
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
 Capacitor Filter( C -Filter)

• When the input signal rises from o to a the diode is forward

biased therefore it starts conducting since the capacitor acts as
a short circuit for ac signal. It gets charged up to the peak of the
input signal and the dc component flows through the load, RL.

• When the input signal falls from a to b the diode gets reverse
biased. This is mainly because of the voltage across the
capacitor obtained during the period o to a is more when
compared to Vi. Therefore, there is no conduction of current
through the diode.
• The charged capacitor acts as a battery and it starts discharging through the load, RL.
Meanwhile the input signal passes through b, c, d sections. When the signal reaches the
point d the diode is still reverse biased since the capacitor voltage is more than the input
voltage. At e the input voltage can be expected to be more than the capacitor voltage.
When the input signal moves from e to f the capacitor gets charged to its peak value
again. The diode gets reverse biased and the capacitor starts discharging.
5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE
Ripple factor for the rectifiers with C-filter

5.1 Diode and Rectifiers EEEE-MBZ/KJSCE