Protocol: A definition

Protocol: The author's definition of a protocol is a method for digital data

communications between two or more devices in different locations, or on a network.
A protocol sets the rules for, among other things, how data is read from and written
to the input and output registers of a PLC or DCS.

Digital Data Basics

Digital data is a natural choice for communications. The smallest unit of digital data
is a Bit, or binary digit, and it has just two states: Off, represented by a 0; and On,
represented by a 1.
Digital data communications through protocols advantages: -
 It is inherently more stable, reliable, and less susceptible to electrical noise
than analog signals.
 A lot of data can be communicated on a single network or fieldbus cable. This
reduces end users’ needs for installing controller input and output modules,
wiring, conduit, etc.
 lets users connect different types of devices to the same communications
cable, such as transmitters and actuators.
 It makes it easier find the sources of problem conditions readily.
Network: A Network is an interconnected group of computers and/or controllers, and
devices that interact with computers and controllers.
NODE: A Node is a computer or other device in a network. Networks are
interconnected by different types of conversion devices, cables, and sometimes, by
radio transceivers.
3 common topologies, or arrangements for networks: Bus Star Ring
Servers: Servers are computers which meet higher standards for dependability,
durability, and speed of access to data than ordinary desktop computers. Typically,
they also have far larger data storage capacity. Servers are frequently set up in
redundant pairs.
Clients: Computers in a network which act only as "dumb terminals" - which
operators can use for monitoring and control, but don’t directly interact with
controllers or perform processing tasks are referred to as Clients.
A server processes requests from its clients and interacts with
controllers. Servers are often referred to as Thick Clients.Client PCs are sometimes
called Thin Clients. Such networks are usually called Client-Server Networks.

Some communication cables have one group of conductors or Fibers for

communication in one direction, and another group of conductors or Fibers for
communication in the other direction. Regarding such cables, two communications
terms sometimes used are Half-duplex and Full-duplex. Half-duplex refers to the
transmission of data in only one direction at a time on a cable or other data link.
Full-duplex refers to the transmission of data in two directions simultaneously.
Typical copper Ethernet cable has separate pairs of conductors for data transfer in
opposite directions.
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model, is the next topic. The OSI model is a
theoretical model of how communications occur on a network. It has 7 layers. It’s
helpful to refer to the OSI model to explain features of protocols, hardware and
networks. The layers are:
Layer 1 (Physical): This layer considers only the physical aspects of a network; the
cables, converters, interconnecting devices, etc.
Layer 2 (Data-link): This layer concerns itself with how Layers 1 and 3 work
together.
Layer 3 (Network): This layer provides an addressing scheme for routing of data
and messages, and includes methods for reliable data communications
Layer 4 (Transport): This layer makes sure that messages get to their correct
destination.
Layer 5 (Session): This layer handles the actual connections between systems.
Layer 6 (Presentation): This layer deals with the way different systems represent
data.
Layer 7 (Application): This layer concerns itself chiefly with the software
applications used on a computer screen.
Use of protocols involves both software and hardware, and it's hard, but sometimes
necessary, to differentiate between functions performed by hardware devices,
and functions performed by software. So, it's helpful to refer to the OSI model
sometimes. Which parts of the OSI Model are used by Communications and Control
protocols. The answers are generally, layers 1, 2, and 7.
Interface standards and devices
RS 232: Recommended standard 232 is a serial communication protocol this
interface has two terminal its transmitting terminal referred Data transmission
equipment DTE and receiving terminal referred as DATA communication terminal
DCE Voltage range (+3 V-+15 V and -3V -_15 V)
RS 232 Configuration parameter:-
 Data bits length
 Parity (Even or Odd)
 Number of stop bits (1 or 2)
 Baud rate
Maximum cable length 15 Mtr speed max 20 Kb/sec
USB: USB, or Universal Serial Bus, is an interface standard. It is used for point-to-
point connections for a wide variety of purposes, such as between a mouse or printer
and a computer. USB 3.0 allows communications at up to 5 Gigabytes per second
(Gbps). USB 4.0 supports 40 Gbps communications. USB has replaced the much
older and slower RS-232 interface, which was used on legacy computers.
RS-485: RS-485 is an interface standard for data communications that allows data.
transmission speeds 10 Mbps 40 feet cable length
It is serial communication interface with two wire transmission it is multi node system
comprising master slave it is electrical only standard max 32 slave and 4000 ft
2 position terminal or 9 pin d sub connector often used.
RS 485 Configuration parameter: -
 Data bits length
 Parity (Even or Odd)
 Number of stop bits (1 or 2)
 Baud rate

8P8C: 8P8C ports and cable connectors have 8 conductors, and 8P8C connectors
are attached to twisted-pair copper Ethernet cables, e.g., Category 6 cables. 8P8C
ports are built into Network Interface Cards (NICs) in computers, Ethernet switches,
media converters, and other devices. Various sizes and shapes of connectors,
including RJ-11 and RJ-45 phone cable connectors, are part of the 8P8C group.

The HART Protocol

In 1986, Rosemount introduced its HART (Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer) Protocol A simplified discussion of HART follows. HART transmitters
place a wave of sorts atop the 4-20 mA signal that isn't needed or sensed by a
controller and doesn't affect the output of the transmitter.
The wave’s frequency is continuously varied depending on whether a bit is 0 or 1.
The wave contains data about the circuit, measurement, and transmitter. When a
HART Handheld Terminal, or a PC loaded with HART software is connected to the
4-20 mA circuit with a HART-compatible transmitter, the user can monitor the circuit
and adjust key transmitter aspects from the terminal. This simplifies the tasks of
checking for problems and changing a transmitter's range without removing the
transmitter's cover. The superimposed wave is immune to electrical noise and
ground loop currents, which can affect a purely analog 4-20 mA signal.
TCP/IP
TCP, or Transmission Control Protocol : used on the Internet and in most
Ethernet networks consecutive clusters are called frames. Frames, in turn, are
broken down into smaller units called packets that are handled by routers.
Individual data transmissions on a network also typically include the address of the
source node, and address(es) of the destination node(s).Each protocol also has its
own method (or user-selectable method) for error checking.
Error checking is used in protocols to make sure the data received at a destination.
node is identical to the transmitted data.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) & IP (Internet Protocol) – known as TCP/IP –
are key protocols. They are used together on the Internet and in Ethernet networks
worldwide. "TCP/IP is a standard for transmitting data in packets from one computer
to another. The two parts are TCP, which deals with construction of data packets,
and IP, which routes them from machine to machine." IP uses 4 "octets" for a sum of
32 address bits. The decimal equivalents of each octet range from 0 to 255, and
periods separate octets in an IP address, e.g., 192.168.41.23. There are restrictions
regarding IP addresses. Some can't be used, and Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
is quickly running out of available addresses for public access. TCP/IP is mentioned
here because some protocols used in control applications are adaptations of TCP/IP.
For example, in Modbus TCP/IP, TCP/IP is like an envelope for data transmitted per
the Modbus protocol. In these adaptations of TCP/IP, data is sent from one node to
another on a network using the same node addressing scheme that IP uses.
In the 2020s, IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6), with 8 octets and 128 address bits,
is gradually replacing IPv4.
Control protocols.
Modbus and two of its variants: Data transmission in Modbus is serial – one
bit follows another.
Modbus Characteristics
Master-slave network
Application layer protocol It isn’t hardware dependent.
Serial data communications
The maximum obtainable speed varies with the variant of Modbus used, and
equipment on the Modbus network.
Maximum nodes allowed 247 slaves possible with repeaters but 32 is standard.
Modbus Variants
Modbus is used on different types of networks for different applications. Here are two
of its variants:
Modbus RTU: This variation is very widely used. It’s typically used on RS-485
networks. Master-slave communications are used. It includes error checking. All
devices on a Modbus RTU network must be set to the same communications.
speed.
• Modbus TCP/IP: This is Modbus adapted for use on an Ethernet network. It is
also known as Modbus IP. Process data in messages communicated using
Modbus TCP/IP are “embedded” in a TCP frame. Nodes in a network using
Modbus TCP/IP (and other protocols that use TCP/IP) use IP addresses.
Modbus RTU is rarely used in new control applications due to its slow
communications speed, however, it remains useful for applications like
instrumentation in which rapid communications is not essential.

Rockwell / Allen-Bradley Protocols

Some Rockwell/ Allen-Bradley protocols deserve attention because of the company’s
large market presence.
a. Common Industrial Protocol (CIP)
CIP is a protocol used in industrial applications.CIP’s standards are now open
protocols, managed by the non-profit organization Open DeviceNet Vendors
Association (ODVA), Inc.
b. ControlNet
ControlNet is an open protocol that’s notable for its use in Rockwell/ Allen-Bradley’s
ControlLogix group of controllers. Its functions are distributed in several layers in the
OSI model. Allen-Bradley participated in development of ControlNet (and
EtherNet/IP & DeviceNet). It’s an open protocol whose standards are managed by
ODVA. Rated communications speed is 500 kbps. Nodes in a ControlNet network
are usually connected by RG-6 coaxial cables and connectors. Each end of the
network must have a terminating resistor. It can support up to 99 nodes. The
physical length of a ControlNet network can be extended using repeaters and/or
media converters which interface copper and Fiber optic cable.
Slave devices in a ControlNet (or Ethernet/IP) network are not limited to controller
remote racks or other controllers. The author once participated in a project where 10
Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) were linked to a branch of a ControlNet network.
The use of many Input and Output (I/O) modules was avoided.
Use of ControlNet is becoming less common as EtherNet/IP gradually replaces it.
c. EtherNet/IP
EtherNet/IP is an open protocol which uses CIP and implements Ethernet
communications between nodes for communications and control. It is managed by
ODVA. ODVA will only certify EtherNet/IP hardware for use if it will work in industrial
environments. Ethernet is non-deterministic communications occur only as needed
but EtherNet/IP includes deterministic communications for input & output updates,
which makes it suitable for plant control uses. Processor to remote rack and
processor to-processor communications are possible with EtherNet/IP. Drives and
Motor Control Centers (MCCs) which interface with EtherNet/IP are also
commercially available.
.
Some Important Open Protocols
FOUNDATION Fieldbus H1
The Fieldbus Foundation participated in development of an international field bus
standard, IEC 61158. FOUNDATION Fieldbus H1 complies with IEC 61158-1. It is
for use for communications between a controller and field devices on a network or
between field devices. All communications on Fieldbus H1 networks are only digital.
Each Fieldbus H1 communications network requires a fieldbus linking device, a
power supply, and terminating resistors. Linking devices interface the fieldbuses with
a DCS. Twisted-pair wiring that meets certain specifications is normally used for
cables, but the standard also supports use of fiber-optic cables. Fieldbus H1
compatible transmitters and actuators have been offered by OEMs for some time
now. Some of its othercharacteristics are listed below:
• 31.25 kbps communication speed.
• 32 network nodes supported.
• A trunkline (main) bus with branches to individual devices is the most common
arrangement for Fieldbus H1.
• Schedules control activity in, and communications activity between devices.
• Regularly polls devices for process data.
• The trunk cable requires a power source in the range of 9-32 VDC, with 24 VDC
± 2 VDC recommended for most uses.
FOUNDATION Fieldbus HSE
FOUNDATION Fieldbus HSE (High Speed Ethernet) is a communications and
control protocol which merges process control and Ethernet connectivity &
communications.
Deterministic communications are used. The high data transfer bandwidth of
Ethernet is its main advantage. It uses redundant cabling. Communications over
distances exceeding a mile can be obtained with Fieldbus HSE certified equipment.
Approved hardware is manufactured for industrial environments. It supports up to
255 nodes,
The PROFIBUS Standards
The PROFIBUS (Process Field Bus) standards arose from the efforts of a
consortium of German companies and the German government. These standards,
and the FOUNDATION Fieldbus standards, have many similarities. The PROFIBUS
standards are maintained by PROFIBUS & PROFINET International (PI).
Both PROFIBUS DP and PROFIBUS PA standards apply to controllers, field
devices, cables and connectors.
PROFIBUS DP
PROFIBUS DP (Decentralized Peripherals) is an important PROFIBUS standard
which is marketed for PLC applications. Some of its features include:
It supports cyclic (deterministic) communications.
31 nodes is standard, but 126 nodes can exist on a network when repeaters are
used.
PROFIBUSPA
PROFIBUS PA (Process Automation) is another notable Profibus standard. It is
interoperable with PROFIBUS DP. PROFIBUS PA and FOUNDATION Fieldbus H1
are similar. PROFIBUS PA compatibility is offered by many instrumentations and
actuator OEMs. Its rated communication speed is 31.25 kbps. Some of its other
characteristics are listed below:
Can support field devices used in environments where explosion hazards exist.
31 nodes is standard. 126 nodes can exist on a network when repeaters are
used.
PROFINET
PROFINET is for use on high speed Ethernet networks. It has similarities to
EtherNet/IP and FOUNDATION Fieldbus HSE. PROFINET devices are designed to
be rugged enough to work in challenging factory and process control environments.
Justas EtherNet/IP is slowly replacing ControlNet, PROFINET is likewise gradually
supplanting PROFIBUS PA and DP

Communications between Controllers and HMIs

HMIs – Human-Machine Interfaces. For plant operators, a typical HMI is usually
desktop computer with a monitor, keyboard and a mouse. Controllers, HMIs, and the
networks which interconnect the devices are more broadly called SCADAs -
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems. A plant with more than two HMI
terminals will usually have a server computer, or redundant server pair.
Use of HMI is to monitor what controllers are doing, provide key information on plant
operations, and enable operators to operate equipment and systems from remote
locations. Operators must be able to start up and shutdown equipment and systems;
switch between automatic to manual modes; change set points of automatic control
loops; and intervene in other ways. Also, operators need to be able to view and
respond to alarms; monitor trends in processes; and access historical information.
Sometimes the protocol used for communications between HMIs and controllers
differs from the protocol the same controller uses to communicate between other
controllers and devices on a network like instruments and actuators.
An aspect of HMI software worth mentioning is that typically, it will request updated
data from the controllers to which it is connected at a periodic rate, and in a
sequence, even as each controller goes on executing its program. HMI data
refreshes typically occur at longer time intervals than PLC or DCS cycle times.

Windows OS and OPC

Microsoft Corp. developed its Windows operating system (OS) so it could be used
with programs developed by many outside firms for all sorts of applications.
Companies that developed HMI programs wanted them to be interoperable with
Windows. So, HMI software developers like Intellution and Wonderware did just that.
HMI developers also found it useful to use some Microsoft programs – notably its
spreadsheet program,Excel.
Some key Microsoft application programs use Object Linking and Embedding, or
OLE. OLE allows two applications to run simultaneously and share data. HMI
developers and controller OEMs alike sought to use OLE techniques so HMIs and
controllers could work together. This led to the development of OPC - Object Linking
and Embedding for Process Control. OPC is now known as Open Platform
Communications.
OPC was developed for a key purpose: to provide a common set of standards, so
any OPC-compliant HMI software program would be able to interface with any
controller. OPC compliance is a very desirable feature and selling point for
companies that offerHMI software. Around 2010, OPC UA, or OPC United
Architecture was developed.
Protocols interact with HMIs, and PLCs & DCSs on a network in part by reading from
and writing to specific addresses on each end. Usually, these addresses will be the
same between the controller(s) and HMI, except the HMI addresses will different
from the controller addresses in some way that is consistent for all addresses. For
example:
PLC Address HMI Address
Adhesives_PLC1.RACK2:2:I.Data.3 CentralHMI_Adhesives1_PLC.RACK2:2:I.Data.3

What is OPC?
In the past, OPC was a collection of software interfaces for data exchange between
PC applications and process devices. These software interfaces were defined
according to the rules of Microsoft COM (Component Object Model) and were
therefore easy to integrate on Microsoft operating systems. COM or DCOM
(Distributed COM) provides the functionality of inter process communication and
organizes the exchange of information between applications, even by means of
computer boundaries (DCOM). Therefore, an OPC client (COM client) can exchange
information with an OPC server (COM server) using mechanisms of the Microsoft
operating system.
The OPC server provides process information of a device available at its interface. The OPC
client connects with the server and can access the offered data.

 OPC Classic (OPC DA, OPC HDA, OPC A&E):

 OPC Data Access (OPC DA): This specification enables real-time data
exchange between OPC-compliant servers (data sources) and clients
(applications or devices that consume data). OPC DA allows clients to
read and write process data such as sensor readings, equipment
statuses, and control signals from OPC servers.
 OPC Historical Data Access (OPC HDA): OPC HDA is an extension of
OPC DA that enables access to historical data stored in process
historians or databases. It allows clients to retrieve historical data for
analysis, reporting, and visualization purposes.
 OPC Alarms and Events (OPC A&E): This specification defines a
standardized interface for accessing and managing alarms and events
generated by industrial automation systems. OPC A&E enables clients
to receive notifications about abnormal conditions, equipment failures,
and other events in real-time.
 OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA):
 Description: OPC UA is the next-generation OPC standard designed to
address the limitations of OPC Classic and meet the evolving needs of
industrial automation and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). It
provides a platform-independent, service-oriented architecture for
secure and reliable communication between devices, systems, and
applications.

 Key Features:
  Platform Independence: OPC UA is designed to work across
different operating systems, hardware platforms, and
communication networks, including Ethernet, TCP/IP, and more.
 Security: OPC UA incorporates advanced security features such
as authentication, encryption, and access control to protect data
integrity and confidentiality.
 Scalability: OPC UA supports scalable architectures, allowing for
efficient communication in both small-scale and large-scale
industrial systems.
 Information Modelling: OPC UA introduces the concept of
information modelling, enabling the representation of complex
data structures and relationships in a standardized and
semantically meaningful way.
 Integration: OPC UA provides built-in features for integrating
with other industrial protocols and standards, facilitating
interoperability and seamless communication between
heterogeneous systems.
Communication methods
Three common methods for communications between
networks are Master-Slave, Token-Ring, and Ethernet.
Master-slave communications is quite simple. It's also used often in industrial
controllers. In this technique, a master device issues commands to one or more
slaves, and the slave(s) respond. For example, a PLC which is connected to 3
external (or remote) racks may be the master. Every 40 milliseconds, the PLC's
processor first checks for any altered inputs in the local rack (the rack where the
processor is located); then it sends a query to the 1st external rack to see if any
inputs have changed, or hardware failures have occurred. Any changes are reported
back to the processor. The process is repeated for the 2nd external rack after
querying of the 1st rack is done; and the 3rd rack after the 2nd rack has been
checked. Then the processor runs its program, changes any outputs if necessary,
then it sends, or "writes" new data to the output registers of modules in the local rack
and 3 external racks. Usually, the slave devices are not controllers – but sometimes
they are. In the latter case, a master controller might send a set point to a slave
controller.
Token-Ring networks rely on token passing for data communications. As the name
suggests, token-ring communications is used on ring networks. "A special message,
called the token, is passed from one machine to another around the ring, and each
machine can transmit only while it is holding the token."1 Token-ring networks never
became prevalent in business and industry. However, token-passing doesn’t require
a ring network for use – it can be, and is, used on networks of other topologies.
So, some protocols rely on token-passing but don’t use a ring network.
Ethernet: Ethernet is essentially a method for communications between computers
and other devices on a network. Ethernet makes use of Carrier Sense - Multiple
Access with Collision Detection, or CSMA/CD. On an Ethernet network, any node
can communicate with any other node. It works like this: first, before a computer or
controller sends data to another (or more than one) device, it listens to see if the
network is busy. If the network is active, it will wait and try to send data later. If it
senses the network is available, it will transmit the data. However, due to network
time delays, a node may start sending data before it senses data release by another
network node. In that case, a data collision occurs, and neither node will be able to
successfully transmit data. Afterwards, each device will wait a random amount of
time before attempting data transfer again. Ethernet works better than any other
method for large networks. That’s why the Internet uses Ethernet. And use of the
Ethernet method has become common among industrial controllers. Furthermore,
communication speeds on Ethernet networks are fast – typically 100 megabits per
second (Mbps) or higher.
Peer-to-peer communications
When any network can transmit data to any other node on the network, the network
is called a peer-to-peer network. Peer-to-peer capability is only possible if the
application layer protocol supports it. Peer-to-peer networks can be implemented on
networks with many different topologies. A master-slave network is not a peer-to-
peer network.
Deterministic communications
Communications that occur within predictable and repeated time intervals are
referred to as deterministic. In controllers, deterministic communications capability
is vitally important. Most programmable controllers check and see if any inputs from
field devices have changed many times per second. If any have, the controller
responds rapidly. Deterministic communications is also referred to as cyclic
communications. Ethernet is "nondeterministic" - communications occur on an as-
needed basis. But some industrial communications protocols use deterministic
adaptations of Ethernet. (For example, EtherNet/IP.) Use of managed switches
effectively also makes most networks deterministic.