Operating System

Unit I Overview of Operating System

1.1 Operating system

Components of Operating System-

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System,
VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Operations of OS-
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

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Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory
is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for
memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part is not in
use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for
how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following
activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

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Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized
access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging
and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other software and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.
Different views of Operating System-
Application view
In application view, we consider the services provided by operating system. Operating system is
responsible to provide the needed execution environment to the running programs. The
program needs processor, memory space and other resources during execution.
This is exactly provided by execution environment. The program uses network, storage devices,
and hardware components through interfaces. These interfaces are also provided by execution
environment. Interfaces provide a simplified, abstract view of hardware to application programs.

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Undesirable interaction between concurrent running programs is prevented by execution

environment making them isolated from each other.
Users view
If the user is working on the single autonomous PC for his work, then performance is mostly
taken into consideration. Operating system is designed to give ease of use and gaining
performance. In this case attention will not be given to optimum resource utilization.
If many users working on workstations connected to mainframe, minicomputers or servers, they
share the resources of the servers. This is because all access the same machine for their work.
The exchange of information takes place among the users.
The operating system is designed to maximize resource utilization. In recent times, many
varieties of handheld computers such as personal digital assistant, handheld personal computer,
and modem cellular phones etc. have come into fashion.
These devices are used by single user. Some are connected to networks, either directly by wire
or through wireless modems. Since devices operate by battery power, there is limitation of
power. Due to the limitation of power and interfaces, the remote operations of these devices
are also limited. Again operating systems for these devices are designed mostly for individual
usability, but performance per amount of battery life is important as well.
System view
The operating system is also called as resource manager. It manages the hardware resources of a
computer system. Resources include processors, memory, disk and other storage devices,
network interfaces, I/O devices such as keyboards, mouse and monitors etc. The running
program needs resources and operating system allocates it. Some of the resources are sharable
and some are not. The OS controls the sharing of the resources among many programs that are
executing.
1.2 Different types of Operating System
An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file, process, and memory. Thus
operating system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus operating
system becomes an interface between user and machine.
Types of Operating Systems: Some of the widely used operating systems are as follows-
1. Batch Operating System –
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator
which takes similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches. It is the
responsibility of operator to sort the jobs with similar needs.

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Advantages of Batch Operating System:

 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete. Processors of the
batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometime costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –

Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets time of
CPU as they use single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can
be from single user or from different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called
quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

 Each task gets an equal opportunity
 Less chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
 Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix etc.
3. Distributed Operating System –
These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology and
are being widely accepted all-over the world and, that too, with a great pace. Various autonomous
interconnected computers communicate each other using a shared communication network.

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Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred as loosely
coupled systems or distributed systems. These system’s processors differ in size and function. The
major benefit of working with these types of operating system is that it is always possible that one
user can access the files or software which are not actually present on his system but on some other
system connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in
that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
 Load on host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
 Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
 To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that the
underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS etc.

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4. Network Operating System –

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. These type of operating systems allow shared access
of files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a small private network.
One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the
underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections etc. and
that’s why these computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network Operating System:

 Highly stable centralized servers
 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated to the system
 Server access are possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly
 User has to depend on central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows
Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD etc.
5. Real-Time Operating System –
These types of OSs serves the real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond
to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time.

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Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements are very strict like missile systems, air
traffic control systems, robots etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
 Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are meant for the applications where time constraints are very strict and even the
shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic
parachutes or air bags which are required to be readily available in case of any accident.
Virtual memory is almost never found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.

Advantages of RTOS:
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system,thus more output from
all the resources
 Task Shifting: Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For example in
older systems it takes about 10 micro seconds in shifting one task to another and in latest
systems it takes 3 micro seconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to applications which
are in queue.
 Real time operating system in embedded system: Since sizes of programs are small, RTOS can
also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these type of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less on few
applications to avoid errors.

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 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they are
expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to write
on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts signals to
response earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to
switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
Mobile OS: Mobile operating system is used for phones, tablets and for some other mobile devices.

Android OS: Android is an open source and Linux-based Operating System for mobile devices such
as smartphones and tablet computers. Android was developed by the Open Handset Alliance, led by
Google, and other companies.
Android offers a unified approach to application development for mobile devices which means
developers need only develop for Android, and their applications should be able to run on different
devices powered by Android.
The source code for Android is available under free and open source software licenses. Google
publishes most of the code under the Apache License version 2.0 and the rest, Linux kernel
changes, under the GNU General Public License version 2.

Features of Android

Android is a powerful operating system competing with Apple 4GS and supports great features.
Few of them are listed below –

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Beautiful UI: Android OS basic screen provides a beautiful and intuitive user interface.
Connectivity: GSM/EDGE, IDEN, CDMA, EV-DO, UMTS, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, LTE, NFC and WiMAX.
Storage: SQLite, a lightweight relational database, is used for data storage purposes.
Web browser: Based on the open-source WebKit layout engine, coupled with Chrome's V8
JavaScript engine supporting HTML5 and CSS3.
Messaging: SMS and MMS
Multi-tasking: User can jump from one task to another and same time various applications can run
simultaneously.
Resizable widgets: Widgets are resizable, so users can expand them to show more content or
shrink them to save space.
GCM: Google Cloud Messaging (GCM) is a service that lets developers send short message data to
their users on Android devices, without needing a proprietary sync solution.
Wi-Fi Direct: A technology that lets apps discover and pair directly, over a high-bandwidth peer-to-
peer connection
Applications:
Android applications are usually developed in the Java language using the Android Software
Development Kit. The various applications are – Dialer, SMS/MMS, Browser, camera, alarm,
calculator, contacts, voice dial, Email, calendar, Maps, Media player, Albums, clocks and many
more.
Ios: i-phone Operating system

Cocoa Touch Layer

It is a top layer of the iPhone OS stack and it contains the frameworks that are most commonly
used by iPhone application developers. Cocoa Touch is primarily written in Objective-C, and it is
based on the standard Mac OS X Cocoa API.
Media Layer
It is the second layer from the top of the stack. It provides the iPhone OS with audio, video,
animation and graphics capabilities. As with the other layers of the iPhone OS stack, the Media
layer comprises a number of frameworks that can be utilized when developing iPhone apps.

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Core Services Layer

It is the third layer from the top of the stack. The iPhone Core Services layer provides much of the
foundation on which the above layers are built.
Core OS Layer
The Core OS Layer is the bottom layer of the iPhone OS stack and sits directly on top of the device
hardware. This layer provides a variety of services including low level networking, access to external
accessories and the usual fundamental operating system services such as memory management,
file system handling and threads.
I-Phone Hardware
Hardware devices are managed by iPhone OS and provides the technologies needed for
implementing native applications on the phone. The OS ships with several system applications such
as Mail, Safari, Phone that provide standard services to the user.
1.3 Command line based OS: DOS, Unix. GUI based OS: Windows, Linux

The various functions of the operating system are:

• Controlling Input/output devices (Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, Plotter etc.)

• Memory & File storage management
• CPU Scheduling & Controlling processes
• Loading, Initiating, Executing and Supervising User Applications Programs
• Handling Errors & Restarting
• Providing command interface between user and computer system
DOS (Disk Operating System):

Command prompt of MS-DOS

Introduction
• Though UNIX was a powerful operating system available, but it was not suitable for 8-bit
8086 microprocessor based Personal Computers.
• So there was a need for a small operating system that could work in 640K memory (RAM).
• DOS was a variant of CP/M (Control Program/Monitor) which ran for the first time on IBM-
PC in 1981.

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• It is called so because it resides on Floppy or Hard disk and provides command level
interface between user & the computer hardware.
• The different versions of MS-DOS have evolved over a period of time with Microsoft
introducing new features in each new release.
• Starting with MS-DOS1.1, the latest version was MS-DOS7.2
• There are various versions of DOS like MS-DOS (Microsoft), PC-DOS (IBM), Apple DOS, Dr-
DOS etc.
DOS uses a command line, or text-based interface, that allows the user to type commands.
By typing simple instructions such as pwd (print working directory) and cd (change directory), the
user can browse the files on the hard drive, open files, and run programs.
Booting:
– When the computer is switched ON, the firmware program in Read Only Memory
(ROM) also called Basic Input-Output System(BIOS) reads programs and data i.e.
Operating System and loads it into memory (RAM).
– This process is known Bootstrapping (Booting).
– The OS once loaded:
– Takes control of the computer
– Handles user interaction
– Executes application programs.

Any instruction given to the computer to perform a specific task is called Command. The DOS has
several commands, each for a particular task and these are stored in DOS directory on the disk.
The commands are of two types-
Internal Commands:
External commands:

Layered structure of operating system: There are six layers in the layered structure of operating
system. A diagram demonstrating these layers is as follows:

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1. Hardware: This layer interacts with the system hardware and coordinates with all the
peripheral devices used, such as a printer, mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. These types of
hardware devices are managed in the hardware layer.
The hardware layer is the lowest and most authoritative layer in the layered operating
system architecture. It is attached directly to the core of the system.
2. CPU Scheduling: This layer deals with scheduling the processes for the CPU. Many
scheduling queues are used to handle processes. When the processes enter the system, they
are put into the job queue.
The processes that are ready to execute in the main memory are kept in the ready queue.
This layer is responsible for managing how many processes will be allocated to the CPU and
how many will stay out of the CPU.
3. Memory Management: Memory management deals with memory and moving processes
from disk to primary memory for execution and back again. This is handled by the third layer
of the operating system. All memory management is associated with this layer. There are
various types of memories in the computer like RAM, ROM.
If you consider RAM, then it is concerned with swapping in and swapping out of memory.
When our computer runs, some processes move to the main memory (RAM) for execution,
and when programs, such as calculator, exit, it is removed from the main memory.
4. Process Management: This layer is responsible for managing the processes, i.e., assigning
the processor to a process and deciding how many processes will stay in the waiting
schedule. The priority of the processes is also managed in this layer. The different algorithms
used for process scheduling are FCFS (first come, first served), SJF (shortest job first), priority
scheduling, round-robin scheduling, etc.
5. I/O Buffer: I/O devices are very important in computer systems. They provide users with the
means of interacting with the system. This layer handles the buffers for the I/O devices and
makes sure that they work correctly.
Suppose you are typing from the keyboard. There is a keyboard buffer attached with the
keyboard, which stores data for a temporary time. Similarly, all input/output devices have
some buffer attached to them. This is because the input/output devices have slow
processing or storing speed. The computer uses buffers to maintain the good timing speed
of the processor and input/output devices.
6. User Programs: This is the highest layer in the layered operating system. This layer deals
with the many user programs and applications that run in an operating system, such as word
processors, games, browsers, etc. You can also call this an application layer because it is
concerned with application programs.

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Advantages of Layered Structure

There are several advantages of the layered structure of operating system design, such as:

1. Modularity: This design promotes modularity as each layer performs only the tasks it is
scheduled to perform.
2. Easy debugging: As the layers are discrete so it is very easy to debug. Suppose an error
occurs in the CPU scheduling layer. The developer can only search that particular layer to
debug, unlike the Monolithic system where all the services are present.
3. Easy update: A modification made in a particular layer will not affect the other layers.
4. No direct access to hardware: The hardware layer is the innermost layer present in the
design. So a user can use the services of hardware but cannot directly modify or access it,
unlike the Simple system in which the user had direct access to the hardware.
5. Abstraction: Every layer is concerned with its functions. So the functions and
implementations of the other layers are abstract to it.

Disadvantages of Layered Structure

Though this system has several advantages over the Monolithic and Simple design, there are also
some disadvantages, such as:

1. Complex and careful implementation: As a layer can access the services of the layers below
it, so the arrangement of the layers must be done carefully. For example, the backing
storage layer uses the services of the memory management layer. So it must be kept below
the memory management layer. Thus with great modularity comes complex
implementation.
2. Slower in execution: If a layer wants to interact with another layer, it requests to travel
through all the layers present between the two interacting layers. Thus it increases response
time, unlike the Monolithic system, which is faster than this. Thus an increase in the number
of layers may lead to a very inefficient design.
3. Functionality: It is not always possible to divide the functionalities. Many times, they are
interrelated and can't be separated.
4. Communication: No communication between non-adjacent layers.

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 Difference between Linux and windows:

Sr.no Linux Windows
1. Linux is an open source operating system. While windows are the not the open source
operating system.
2. Linux is free of cost. While it is costly.
3. It’s file name case-sensitive. While it’s file name is case-insensitive.
4. In linux, monolithic kernel is used. While in this, micro kernel is used.
5. Linux is more efficient in comparison of While windows are less efficient.
windows.
6. There is forward slash is used for While there is back slash is used for
Separating the directories. Separating the directories.
7. Linux provides more security than While it provides less security than linux.
windows.
8. Linux is widely used in hacking purpose While windows does not provide much
based systems. efficiency in hacking.
9. There are 3 types of user account – There are 4 types of user account –
(1) Regular , (2) Root , (3) Service account (1) Administrator , (2) Standard , (3) Child , (4)
Guest
10. Root user is the super user and has all Administrator user has all administrative
administrative privileges. privileges of computers.
11. Linux file naming convention in case In Windows, you cannot have 2 files with the
sensitive. Thus, sample and SAMPLE are 2 same name in the same folder.
different files in Linux/Unix OS

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