Water Resource Engineering Laboratory CE(PC)693

Experiment 1: Catchment Area

Delineation
Introduction: A catchment is an area of land that is drained by a river and its tributaries and
Delineation is based entirely on topographic and river network information. The catchment
boundary to any required (usually gauged) point on the river network is defined by applying GIS
tools to an appropriate digital elevation model. In theory, this process should be relatively easy
using existing digital elevation models (e.g. SRTM, ASTER GDEM, EU-DEM) and widely
available GIS algorithms. In practice the process is often quite difficult. In particular, delineation
of headwater streams can be problematic if valley width is less than DEM resolution, while
vertical accuracy of DEMs often causes problems in flat, plain regions. Further complications in
terms of subsequent interpretation of hydrology can arise due to water transfer infrastructure and
changes in underlying geology, which may lead to the effective watershed not coinciding with
the topographic watershed.
Simple GIS tools are available to create an inferred river network and to delineate the catchment
boundary for any location on the network based on a DEM. Accurate digital mapping products
could also be utilized to improve the accuracy of river network used in the process. For all
analyses at finer spatial scales, the river course is best delineated using a digital representation of
the actual network rather than any inferred network derived from DEM analysis.

DELINEATION METHODS
• DEM Based (Automatic Delineation) – Water flows downhill – Grid cell based approach –
Boundaries created automatically by computer,

• Manual Delineation – Drawing watersheds by clicking on the map – Requires underlying data
for accuracy.

Catchment Area Delineation by Digital Elevation Models

i. Using computers, geographic data can now be stored electronically.
ii. Digital Elevation Models (DEM’s) store topographic data in the form of grid cells.
iii. Typically, these grid cells have a resolution of 30 meters or less and elevation
intervals of 1 meter.
iv. Using a DEM within a Geographical Information System (GIS), we can perform
digital terrain analysis (DTA) such as calculating slopes, flow lengths, and delineate
catchment area boundaries and stream networks.

Catchment Area Delineation using GIS

i. Any GIS package can be used – eg. ArcGIS, GRAM++
ii. In our lab use of ArcGIS 10.3 will be explained if possible.
 iii. The major tools used are ArcMap and ArcCatalog
iv. ArcMap is used for performing the operations on the data
v. ArcCatalog is used for maintaining the data and files
vi. The input required are topo sheets
vii. The scanned topo sheets are geo-registered in ERDAS IMAGINE.
viii. ArcMap contains the ArcTool box, which has all the tools required for modifying,
reading, determining and viewing maps
ix. Shape files (.shp) are the files that can be created in ArcCatalog and edited in
ArcMap
x. For catchment area delineation, the contours are to be digitized from the scanned
toposheet.

Major steps involved in delineating a catchment area using ARC GIS are:
i. Geo-registering the scanned topo sheets
ii. Creating shapefiles
iii. Contour digitization
iv. Preparation of DEM
v. Filling of DEM
vi. Flow Direction Raster generation
vii. Flow Accumulation Raster Determining Pour Points Catchment Area

Creation of Shapefile
i. Initially a shape file is to be created in ArcCatalog
ii. For contours, the polyline shape files are used
iii. The coordinate system of the shape file must be determined
iv. An existing coordinate system can be used or a coordinate system being used in
another file can be imported
v. Open the attribute table of this shape file and add a new attribute elevation (any name
can be given)
vi. Contour Digitization
vii. This shape file must now be added to the ArcMap as a layer
viii. Open the editor tool bar and click on start editing
ix. If there are multiple shape files in the ArcMap at the same time, specify the target
file in the box provided
x. Select the Create new feature tool (pencil tool) and start sketching along the contours
xi. After a contour is completed, specify its elevation in the attribute table.

Preparation of DEM
a. In the Arc Tool box, open the spatial analyst extension ,
b. Open interpolation tools ,
c. Open the topo to raster option ,
 d. In the topo to raster window, specify the input file as the shapefile created ,
e. Change the type as contour and field to elevation ,
f. Run the topo to raster to get the DEM,
g. Filling the DEM,
h. After getting the DEM, there is need to fill the depressions if any in the DEM to get
avoid false routings,
i. Open the hydrology tool box in the spatial analyst extension ,
j. Open the fill tool and give the DEM as the input file,
k. It fills the sinks in the surface raster and removes small imperfections in the data.

Preparing Flow Direction map

a. The filled DEM is used to prepare the Flow Direction map,
b. Flow direction tool is available in the hydrology tool box in spatial analyst extension,
c. It creates the raster with flow direction to the steepest neighboring cell down the slope ,
d. It is used to determine the direction of flow of water in the given topography,
e. Direction of flow must be known for each cell, because it is direction of flow that
determines the ultimate destination of water flowing across the surface.
Flow Accumulation
a. It is done using hydrology tool box,
b. It shows the drainage path based on the flow direction raster,
c. It shows the accumulation of flow in each cell ,
d. The maximum accumulated path gives the drainage path ,
e. Pour Points,
f. After getting the flow accumulation raster, pour points are required to determine
catchment area pertaining to the flow path,
g. We create a point shape file for determining the pour points
h. These pour points are determined in the path using flow accumulation raster .

Catchment Area Delineation

i. Using the catchment area tool in hydrology tool box, a catchment area is delineated
j. The input required are the flow direction raster and the pour point shape file
k. If there are multiple catchment areas in a topo sheet, the catchment areas corresponding
to the drainage paths also can be determined.
Experiment 2: Calculation of Average
rainfall over a catchment area
Objective
After completing this practical exercise, you should be able to:
• calculate average rainfall over a catchment area.

INTRODUCTION
Rainfall is an important natural resource which provides water for different usages such as public
health, industry and agriculture. Accurate measurement of rainfall helps in conserving and
managing water resources efficiently.

Point rainfall refers to the rainfall data of a rain-gauge station. Depending on the need, data can
be listed as daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal or annual values for various periods. These
represents only point sampling of the areal distribution of the storm. However, hydrological
analysis requires knowledge of the rainfall over an area, such as over a catchment. To convert
the point rainfall values measured by various rain-gauge stations into an average value over a
catchment, following methods are used.

1. Arithmetic mean method

2. Thiessen polygon method
3. Isohyetal method

EXPERIMENT
PROCEDURE & CALCULATON EXAMPLE:
1. Arithmetic mean method: If there are small variations in the rainfall values
measured by the stations, this method can be used.
If P1, P2, . . . , Pn are the rainfall values obtained from n rain-gauge stations within a
catchment, then the average precipitation P¯ is given by
 Example: Using Arithmetic Average Method, find average rainfall over a catchment.
The rain gage data is: 12.6, 18.8, 14.8, 10.4 and 16.2 mm.

P  P  P  ......  P  Pi
Pa v  1 2 3 n
 i 1
n n

12 .6  18 .8  14 .8  10 .4  16 .2  72 .8
Pav    14 .56 mm
5 5

2. Thiessen polygon method: In this method, the rainfall recorded at each station is
given a weightage on the basis of an area closest to that station.
I. Draw the catchment area to a scale and mark the rain-gauge stations on it.
II. Join each station by straight line to create a triangulated network.
III. Draw perpendicular bisectors on each side of each triangle. Extend the bisectors
to meet the other bisectors and the catchment boundary.
IV. The polygons formed by the perpendicular bisectors (and part of catchment
boundary) are the influence areas of each station.
 If there are n number of rain-gauge stations in and around the catchment and if A1, A2, . .
. , An are the respective influence areas of Thiessen Polygon, then the average
precipitation is given by,

The ratio Ai/A is known as the weightage factor for each station. Once the weightage factors are
calculated, those become constant for a fixed network of rain gauge stations and the calculation
of P¯ becomes very easy. It should be remembered that these weightage factors are independent
of the storm.

EXAMPLE 1: Four rain-gauge stations are located in a catchment area, approximated by a

circle of radius 100km, as shown in the figure. Annual precipitation recorded by these station in
the year 2003 are: A(85cm), B(130cm), C(105cm), D(98cm). Draw the Thiessen polygon and
calculate the average annual precipitation on the catchment in 2003.
ANS.

Raingauge Polygon Area (km2)

A 1-2-4-A 7853.982
B 3-2-4-B 7853.982
C 3-2-5-C 7853.982
D 1-2-5-D 7853.982

P=
Example 2: A catchment area is approximated by a semi-circle on top of an equilateral
triangle of sides 20km, as shown in the figure. There are five rain-gauge stations A, B, C, D and
E and the annual rainfall values obtained from these are 32cm, 43cm, 54cm, 28cm and 59cm
respectively. Draw the thiessesn polygon and obtain the mean annual rainfall.

ANS:

Influence area of E = (5√2)2 = 50km2

Area of the semi-circle = π × 10 2/2 = 157.0798km

Influence area of A = Influence area of B = 157.0798/2 − 50/4 = 66.04km

Influence area of C = Influence area of D =1/2× 10 × 10√3 − 50/4 = 74.10km.

Raingauge Pi Ai Pi Ai
A 32 66.04 2113.28
B 43 66.04 2839.72
C 54 74.10 4001.4
D 28 74.10 2074.8
E 59 50 2950
Total 330.28 13979.2

Then, P¯ = 13979.2/330.28 = 42.33cm.

3. Isohyetal Method:
Isohyet : An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude.
Steps involved in the isohyetal method to determine the average rainfall.
I. The catchment area is drawn to scale and the rain gauge stations are marked.
II. Rainfall values recorded by the stations are marked at the appropriate stations.
Neighboring stations outside the catchment are also considered.
III. Isohyets are drawn considering the rainfall values at the stations and using
suitable interpolation scheme.
IV. Area between two adjacent isohyets is measured using a planimeter. If the
isohyets go out the catchment, the catchment boundary is used as the bounding
line.
 If P1, P2, . . . , Pn are the values of isohyets and if A1, A2, . . . , An − 1 are the
inter-isohyet area respectively, then the mean precipitation over the catchment is
given by.

EXAMPLE:
The isohyets due to a storm in a catchment were drawn and the area of the catchment bounded by
isohyets was tabulated as below. Estimate the mean precipitation due to the storm.

Isohyets (cm) Area (km2)

14.0-12.0 30
12.0-10.0 140
10.0-8.0 80
8.0-6.0 180
6.0-4.0 20

Isohyets Average Area AiPi

Value of P (km2)
(Pi + Pi+1)/2 Ai

Col.1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 2 x Col 3

14.0-12.0 13.0 30.0 390.0
12.0-10.0 11.0 140.0 1540.0
10.0-8.0 9.0 80.0 720.0
8.0-6.0 7.0 180.0 1260.0
6.0-4.0 5.0 20.0 100.0
Total 450.0 4010.0

Then, P¯ = 4010.0/450.0 = 8.91cm.

EXPERIMENT 3
RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
Structure
1.0 Objective
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Experiment
1.2.1 Requirements
1.2.2 Procedure
1.3 Observations and Calculations
1.4 Results

1.0 OBJECTIVE
After completing this practical exercise, you should be able to:
• Measure rainfall from non-recording and recording rain gauges.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Rainfall is an important natural resource which provides water for different usages such as public
health, industry and agriculture. Accurate measurement of rainfall helps in conserving and
managing water resources efficiently.
Harvesting, conservation and utilization of rainwater holds the key for undertaking agriculture
and other allied activities in order to achieve socioeconomic development of watersheds. Rainfall
can be measured by non-recording and recording type (automatic) rain gauges. Non-recording
rain gauges record periodic readings of the accumulated rainfall (24 hours). Large capacity rain
gauges are used for measuring rainfall only a few times at the remote sites. Recording type rain
gauges continuously record rainfall and thus rainfall depth can be obtained for any period. It
enables to determine rainfall characteristics such as intensity, frequency, duration and amount of
rainfall influencing rate and amount of runoff.

1.2 EXPERIMENT
1.2.1. Requirements

• Non-recording rain gauge

• Recording rain gauge
1.2.2 Procedure
(i) Non-recording rain gauge:
The rainwater is received in. a plastic bottle covered with funnel (Fig. 1.1).
The depth of rainfall received in 24 hours is measured by glass cylinder
provided by the manufacturer. The rainfall is measured at 8:30 A.M.

Precautions:
• Rain gauge should be kept on a hard compact platform and height of rim should be kept 60cm
above the ground level.
• Ensure that rain gauge is leak proof.
• Measuring cylinder should be kept clean and plant leaves and other foreign particles removed
from the receiver.

Fig. 3.1

(ii) Recording rain gauge:

It consists of a cylinder with a funnel top. Circular inner brass tube, recording mechanism of a
clock driven drum carrying the record sheet on which a pen draws the graph rainfall against time
(Fig. 1 .2). The clock mechanism completes one rotation in 24 hours. The x- axis of the chart
(graph) is the rain (mm) with accuracy of 1 mm and Y- axis represents time. The recording sheet
is replaced once in 24 hours. The recording pen is fixed on a rod connected to a float in the inner
cylinder. As the rainwater accumulates in the cylinder, the float rises along with the pan which
records the rainfall. When the cylinder is full, the connection is established with the inner
cylinder and siphon tube and the entire water gets drained and pen drops to the zero position. The
depth of rainfall recorded on the graph sheet is read for every half all hour to determine the
variation in rainfall intensity for different duration of the storms.

Fig. 3.2: Recording rain gauge

Precautions
• Change the chart every day between 8.30 and 9.00 am. (Or a particular time of a day)
• Ensure that there is sufficient ink in the pen.
• Instrument should be kept clean and free from leaves and other foreign particles.

1.2 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Record rainfall at 8.30 am (Or a particular time of the day) for non-recording and recording rain
gauges.

1.3 RESULTS

(i) :Non-recording rain gauge

Depth of rainfall = ............. mm
(ii) Recording rain gauge
Depth of rainfall = ............. mm
EXPERIMENT 4
MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION RATE
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Experiment
1.2.1 Requirements
1.2.2 Procedure
1.3 Observations and Calculations
1.4 Results

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing this practical exercise, you will be able to:
• understand infiltration phenomenon; and
• determine the infiltration of a given soil.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Infiltration is one of the most important characteristics of soils and influences irrigation and other
parameters of water balance such as runoff and groundwater. Water through irrigation/rainfall
infiltrates into the soil surface and is stored for use by plants. It refers to the downward entry of
water into the soil. The rate at which water enters the soil is called the infiltration rate usually
measured in cm/hr. This is called the initial infiltration rate. As more water replaces the air in the
pores, the water from the soil surface infiltrates more slowly and eventually reaches a steady
rate. This is called the basic infiltration rate (Fig.4.1). The rate of infiltration is limited by the
capacity of the soil and the rate at which water is applied to the surface.

Fig 4.1
The maximum rate at which water can infiltrate into a soil under a given set of conditions is
called infiltration capacity. The accumulated infiltration measured in cm, is the total depth of
water infiltrated in the soil in a given time. The most common method of measuring infiltration
is by using cylinder
infiltrometer, Infiltration is measured using single or double ring infiltrometer (Fig.4.2). In
double ring infiltrometer, infiltration rate is determined directly as the rate at which water is
applied to maintain constant depth within the infiltrometer. The inner and outer rings of
infiltrometer have diameters of 30
and 60 cm respectively with 25 cm height. The metal rings are driven about 10 cm into the soil
surface. Water is filled in both the rings and constant water depth is maintained in the outer ring
to minimize the effect of lateral flow. The depth of infiltration at different time intervals is
measured in the inner ring. The measurements are continued till the infiltration rate becomes
constant to determine the basic infiltration rate. The average infiltration rate is fraction of the
accumulated water depth divided by the time of infiltration. The average infiltration rate helps to
determine the water depth stored in the given time of irrigation/rainfall in the soil profile while
the basic infiltration rate is of significance in watershed or hydrological studies.
 Fig 4.2

1.2 EXPERIMENT
1.2.1 Requirements

• Double ring infiltrometer of 60 and 30 cm diameter

• Hammer
• Wooden plank:
• Container with' water
• Scale
• Stop watch
• Calculator

1.2.2 Procedure
• drive metallic rings of 60 and 30 cm diameter with 25 cm height about 10 cm into the soil by
using wooden plank and hammer;

• fill inner and outer rings with water and maintain equal water level in both rings to minimize
lateral flow;

• note the readings of water level in the inner ring using stop watch and hook gauge or scale with
respect to a reference level at different time intervals;

• Initially note the readings at short time intervals and then increase the time interval; and

• continue the readings till water level fall is negligible (steady state condition).
1.3 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Example 1.1

Time, min Water level, Water level Fall in water Infiltration Accumulated
cm (WRT to after filling to level, cm rate, cm/hr infiltration,
reference original level, cm
level) cm
0 2 0
2 3 1 30 1
5 4 1 20 2
10 5.4 2.0 1.4 16.8 3.4
20 4.0 2.0 12 5.4
30 5.5 1.5 9.0 6.9
45 6.9 1.4 5.6 8.3
60 8.3 1.4 5.6 9.7

Fig 4.3
Exercise

Time, min Water level, Water level Fall in water Infiltration Accumulated
cm (WRT to after filling to level, cm rate, cm/hr infiltration,
reference original level, cm
level) cm

1.4 RESULTS
Basic infiltration rate = ......................... cm/hr
Accumulated infiltration during one hour= ......................... cm.
Average infiltration during one hour = .......................... cm/hr
EXPERIMENT 5
PAN EVAPORATION
Structure
1.0 Objective
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Experiment
1.2.1 Requirements
1.2.2 Procedure
1.3 Observations and Calculations
1.4 Results
1.5 Precautions

1.0 OBJECTIVE
After completing this practical exercise, you should be able to:
• measure evaporation from U.S. Class 'A' Pan.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is an important process of the hydrologic cycle. Approximately 75% of the total
annual precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration. In hot
climates, the loss of water by evaporation from rivers, canals and open-water bodies as
evaporation is quite significant. Most of the water withdrawn for beneficial uses ultimately
returns to streams and aquifers and becomes available for reuse, while the loss of water due to
evaporation is entirely lost from the usable supply. Even in humid areas, evaporation loss is
significant. High evaporation loss in relation to the usable yield is characteristic of river systems
in the country due to the climate, character of stream flow and the great seasonal variations and
pattern of runoff. Storage reservoirs are a major source of water loss through evaporation as they
are exposed to wide surfaces.
Evaporation is measured using evaporation pans. There are a number of standardized pans for
measuring evaporation and the U.S. Class 'A' Pan is probably the most commonly used (Fig.4.1).
The Pan is circular with a diameter of 1.21 m and depth of 25.5 cm. The basin is put on a 15 cm
high wooden frame to allow air circulation around the basin. The water level is kept about 5 cm
below the rim, due to allowance of percolation and the need of water. The water level is
measured every day. Due to heating of metallic pan sides, the measured evaporation is higher
than the actual evaporation. To correct this value, pan evaporation is multiplied by a pan
coefficient which depends on the climatic region. An average value of pan coefficient is taken as
0.70 with a range of 0.60-0.80. Maximum evaporation from water surface takes place in summer
after the water temperature gets relatively raised and at times when, with low relative humidity,
air temperature is low.
1.2 EXPERIMENT
1.2.1 Requirements
• U.S. Class 'A' Pan; and
• Scale.

1.2.2 Procedure

• Measure amount of water evaporated in previous 24 hours every day in the morning using hook
gauge.
• After measurement, fill water in the Pan to the original level;
• repeat the process the next day; and
• calculate actual evaporation by multiplying pan evaporation with pan
factor (0.8).
Actual evaporation = Pan evaporation x 0.8

1.3 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Pan evaporation = …….mm

Actual evaporation = Pan evaporation x 0.8=……… mm

1.4 RESULTS

Pan evaporation = .......... mm

Actual evaporation = ......... mm

1.5 PRECAUTIONS

• There should not be any leakage of water from the pan.

• Pan should always be placed 10 cm above the ground surface.
• The pan should be painted white once in a year.
EXPERIMENT 6
Measurement of bright sunshine hours
using sun shine recorder
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Experiment
1.2.1 Requirements
1.2.2 Procedure
1.3 Observations and Calculations
1.4 Results

1.0 Objective:
Bright sunshine duration: Sunshine duration is a climatological indicator, measuring duration of
sunshine in a given period for a given location.

1.1 Introduction:
Crops convert solar energy into chemical energy during the process of photosynthesis and
transpiration. These processes required much energy. Since, the recording of solar radiation
required sophisticated and advanced costly instruments such as pyrenometer and potentiometric
recorder etc. Solar radiation can be estimated by using the bright sunshine duration data. The
instrument used here for this purpose is Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder. The instrument is
installed on a masonry pillar of 10 ft (3.04 m) above ground. The sphere is supported on the bowl
according to the latitude of the station. The instrument consists of a glass sphere of 10 cm
diameter, mounted concentrically in a section of a spherical bowl. Three overlapping pairs of
grooves are provided in the bowl to take cards suitable for different seasons of the year. Short
curve cards are inserted on the upper groove in winter season from 15th October to end of
February. Long curve cards are inserted on the lower groove in summer season from 12th April
to 2nd September. Straight cards are inserted on the middle groove during equinoxes from 3rd
September to 14th October and 1st March to 11th April.

1.2 Experiment
1.2.1 Requirements
Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder.
1.2.2 Procedure
A Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder concentrates sunlight through a glass sphere onto a
recording card placed at its focal point. The length of the burn trace left on the card represents
the sunshine duration. The device’s structure is shown in Figure 1.1 (a). A homogeneous
transparent glass sphere L is supported on an arc XY, and is focused so that an image of the sun
is formed on recording paper placed in a metal bowl FF' attached to the arc. The glass sphere is
concentric to this bowl, which has three partially overlapping grooves into which recording cards
for use in the summer, winter or spring and autumn are set (Figure 1.1 (b)). Three different
recording cards (Figure 1.1 (c)) are used depending on the season. The focus shifts as the sun
moves, and a burn trace is left on the recording card at the focal point. A burn trace at a
particular point indicates the presence of sunshine at that time, and the recording card is scaled
with hour marks so that the exact time of sunshine occurrence can be ascertained. Measuring the
overall length of burn traces reveals the sunshine duration for that day. For exact measurement,
the sunshine recorder must be accurately adjusted for planar leveling, meridional direction and
latitude. Campbell-Stokes and Jordan sunshine recorders mark the occurrence of sunshine on
recording paper at a position corresponding to the azimuth of the sun at the site, and the time of
sunshine occurrence is expressed in local apparent time. Exchange and reading of the recording
paper are performed after sunset.
 Fig 6.1

Reading of Recording Paper

To obtain uniform results for observation of sunshine duration with a Campbell-Stokes sunshine
recorder, the following points should be noted when reading records: (a) If the burn trace is
distinct and rounded at the ends, subtract half of the curvature radius of the trace’s ends from the
trace length at both ends. Usually, this is equivalent to subtracting 0.1 hours from the length of
each burn trace. (b) If the burn trace has a circular form, take the radius as its length. If there are
multiple circular burns, count two or three as a sunshine duration of 0.1 hours, and four, five or
six as 0.2 hours. Count sunshine duration this way in increments of 0.1 hours. (c) If the burn
trace is narrow, or if the recording card is only slightly discolored, measure its entire length. (d)
If a distinct burn trace diminishes in width by a third or more, subtract 0.1 hours from the entire
length for each place of diminishing width. However, the subtraction should not exceed half the
total length of the burn trace.

1.3 Time of Observations

i. Remove t he burnt card in t he evening after sunset.
ii. Insert the new card in the appropriate groove before sunrise or after sunset.

1.4 Evaluation

In order to obtain uniform results from Campbell-Stokes recorders, it is especially important to

conform closely to the following directions for measuring the IRSR (Campbell-Stokes recorder)
records. The daily total duration of bright sunshine should be determined by marking off on the
edge of a card of the same curvature the lengths corresponding to each mark and by measuring
the total length obtained along the card at the level of the recording to the nearest tenth of an
hour. The evaluation of the record should be made as follows:

(a) In the case of a clear burn with round ends, the length should be reduced at each end by an
amount equal to half the radius of curvature of the end of the burn; this will normally correspond
to a reduction of the overall length of each burn by 0.1 h;

(b) In the case of circular burns, the length measured should be equal to half the diameter of the
burn. If more than one circular burn occurs on the daily record, it is sufficient to consider two or
three burns as equivalent to 0.1 h of sunshine; four, five, six burns as equivalent to 0.2 h of
sunshine; and so on in steps of 0.1 h;

(c) Where the mark is only a narrow line, the whole length of this mark should be measured,
even when the card is only slightly discoloured;

(d) Where a clear burn is temporarily reduced in width by at least a third, an amount of 0.1 h
should be subtracted from the total length for each such reduction in width, but the maximum
subtracted should not exceed one half of the total length of the burn.
In order to assess the random and systematic errors made while evaluating the records and to
ensure the objectivity of the results of the comparison, it is recommended that the evaluations
corresponding to each one of the instruments compared be made successively and independently
by two or more persons trained in this type of work.

1.4 Sources of Error

The errors of this recorder are mainly generated by the dependence on the temperature and
humidity of the burn card as well as by the over-burning effect, especially in the case of scattered
clouds. The morning values are frequently affected by dew or frost at middle and high latitudes.

1.5 Maintenance
Any dust, condensation, frost, ice or snow deposited on the windshield glass should be removed
with a feather duster or soft cloth. Wash away any stubborn soiling with water while taking care
not to damage the glass surface.