Structural Basis of

Indian Society UNIT 3 STRUCTURE AND NATURE OF

INDIAN SOCIAL SYSTEM*

Contents

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Concept of Varna
3.2 Concept of Caste (Jati)
3.3 Difference between Varna and Caste
3.4 Theory of Purushartha
3.5 Theory of Ashrama
3.6 Concept of Karma
3.7 Concept of Rina
3.8 Summary
3.9 References
3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this unit, you will learn about the following:

 understanding the concept of varna and jati and their inter-relations;

 philosophical understanding of basic principles – Purushartha and

Ashrama; and

 doctrine of Karma and Rina.

3.0 INTRODUCTION
India exhibits a remarkable range of ethnic, linguistic, religious, regional,
economic, caste and class diversities in every facet of its societal life. All
these divisions are sharpened due to the widening gap between traditions and
modernity, rural and urban, between gender identities etc. The traditional
Indian society exhibits certain basic features having theological
underpinnings of Hindu religion. The fabric of traditional social structure in
Indian context is woven around the ideas of rebirth (punarjanam),
immortality of soul (aatma), karma (deed), merit (punya), morality (dharma)
and salvation (moksha). Social interdependence is the central theme of Indian
society. Right from the birth, people belong to certain social groups like jati,
gotra, kula or vansha, varna and feel a sense of belongingness to these

*
Contributor: Dr. Kalyani Sahal, Guest Faculty, Department of Sociology, Delhi School of
38 Economics, University of Delhi.
groups. Social stratification and hierarchy is the another important theme Structure and
Nature of Indian
which is evident in Indian social structure. Social System

This unit focuses on understanding the concept of varna and jati/ caste and
their inter-relations. In order to comprehend the Indian social structure it is
necessary to have a clear understanding of twin concepts that explain
hierarchy and ranking in society.

In this unit, we will also learn about the scriptural and textual understanding
of the fundamental principles of Hinduism – Purushartha, ashrama, karma,
rina that govern and regulate the social structure in Indian context. It is
important to understand these concepts so that one can develop a better
understanding of the social fabric of which one is also a very integral part.
There is a deep sense of attachment to these basic principles of Hinduism.

3.1 CONCEPT OF VARNA

Indian society is divided into numerous castes and sub-castes as noted by
various scholars from time to time. For a very long period of time caste was
represented as varna and both terms were used interchangeably. But over a
period of time it has been realised that both are not identical terms.

Betille (1996) “caste is now represented much more typically as jati, or its
equivalent in the regional language”. Terms like jat, samaj, biradari are
equivalent terms of jati and used in different regions of India. It is important
for us to understand both the concepts of Varna and caste and their inter-
relations to have a clear picture of India social structure.

Dube (1990: 52) pointed out that Varna is not a functional unit in case of
Indian society but serves as a reference category. It acts as a “classificatory
device” in which several jatis of ascribed ritual status are placed together in a
hierarchical order.

Let us look at the theories of origin of Varna system. It was believed that the
Aryan invasion into India leads to four fold division of Indian society.
Herbert Risley proposed that Aryan society was divided into four groupings
and this varna system was brought in India with them. As the word ‘varna’
means colour, so, it was aimed to differentiate between fair skinned Aryans
and dark skinned Dasas (the original inhabitants of India). It implies that
there were only two groups in Indian society – Aryans and non-Aryans. Later
on Aryans got divided into three varna – Brahaman, Kshatria, Vaishya while
Dasas become Shudra, the fourth varna.

The second is the divine theory of origin of Varna. As per Purushashukta of

Rig Veda, there are four orders of the society – the Brahaman, the Kshatriya,
the Vaishya and the Shudra. All these originated from different body parts of
the primeval being – the Purusha. The Brahaman is believed to have
originated from mouth, Kshatriya from the arms, Vaishyas from the thighs
and Shudras from the feet of the Purusha. This is the symbolic descending 39
Structural Basis of order of the four categories and closely associated with their functions in the
Indian Society
society. Brahaman – the priest involved in intellectual growth and spiritual
needs of the society. Kshatriya – the rulers were concerned with the
protection of the society. Vaishya – the merchants and landowners were
involved in commerce and agriculture. Shudras – the artisans and servants
were involved in all kinds of manual labour. Each varna occupied a specific
position in social hierarchy and engaged varna based division of labour. This
system of varna was structured around the principle of purity and pollution.
The first three varna were regarded pure and “twice born” while Shudra were
considered backward. The roots of untouchability were laid during post-vedic
period. People involved in polluting professions like cleaning human and
animal waste, animal hides and dealing with dead bodies were considered
belonging to the lowest order called Antyaja. This fifth order was later on
incorporated into the varna system and become the lowest rung of
untouchables.

The third is the tri guna theory of varna origin. Guna refers to inherent
quality of an individual. There are three basic guna which are found in the
personality of each individual. But only one guna becomes predominant and
thus becomes the marker of his personality. The three guna are – sattva guna,
raja guna and tama guna.

1) Sattva guna – It refers to chastity, purity, devotion to knowledge and

lack of attraction or attachment towards worldly things. It is believed to
be predominant guna among Brahmins.

2) Raja guna – This guna refers to steadfastness to duty, commitment to

truth and devotion to justice. It focuses on self-sacrifice for the larger
interest of the society. This is considered to be predominant character of
the warrior class or Kshatriya.

3) Tama guna – It refers to obsession with worldly things and satisfaction

of the biological needs. It is considered to predominant guna among
Vaishyas.

Interestingly, the four varna groupings did not enjoy any ascribed status
during Vedic times. Vishnu Purana states that everyone is born as Shudra. It
is only one’s karma that entitles one to become a Brahmin or Khastriya or
Vaishya. Therefore, it implies that varna system was not a closed system and
inter-varna mobility was possible during Vedic times. Moreover, Shudras
were not untouchables but rather a conglomeration of artisan castes at that
time.

Check Your Progress

1) Name the three theories that explain the origin of Varna system in India.

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 …………………………………………………………………………… Structure and
Nature of Indian
Social System
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3.2 CONCEPT OF CASTE (JATI)

Caste can be a very confusing word and can convey different meanings in
different social contexts. The word caste is derived from a Portuguese term
‘casta’ which means race or breed. There are terms like varna, jati, jat,
biradari, samaj which are sometimes translated as caste in the Indian context.
Caste and varna refer to ranked groups. Varna refers to broad divisions which
include complex network of hierarchically placed castes and sub-castes.
‘Jatis’ refer to numerous occupational communities that are endogamous in
nature. When I use the term caste in the text, I refer to these endogamous jatis
and not varna (which we have discussed in above section).

The main attributes of jatis as pointed by Dube (1990:58) are – endogamous

unit, hierarchically graded, jati linked occupation, notion of purity and
pollution, common culture and intra-village as well as inter-village
mechanisms for conflict resolution and social control (example caste based
village councils).

The features of hierarchy and occupation are interlinked for a caste. Castes
involved in clean professions (belonging to upper three varnas) also have
hierarchically higher status as compared to the lower castes (belonging to the
fourth varna) who have been involved traditionally in polluting profession.
Occupations dealing in the bodily fluids, leather and cadavers are considered
polluted.

The principle of purity and pollution governed the relations between different
castes. It also served the basis for determining the hierarchy of castes.
Therefore, the more pure the caste is, higher is its status and place in social
hierarchy. There were certain means mentioned in the Hindu scriptures to
attain the purity. For example, reading holy Hindu texts (Vedas and
Upnishadas), meditating, practicing abstinence (Brahmacharya), teetotalism,
vegetarianism, non-violence, undertaking pilgrimage etc. Louis Dumont in
his widely acknowledged work Homo Hierarchicus (1970) presented the
most systematic approach to study caste. According to him, Brahmins and
untouchables represent the opposition between pure and impure. This
ideology of purity and impurity is the root cause of hierarchy. He suggests
that specialization in the occupations that are considered impure over the
generations lead to perpetual impurity. For example the cobbler who is
traditionally engaged in dealing with leather becomes untouchable
permanently.

REFLECTION AND ACTION

Discuss the changes in inter-caste relations in your neighbourhood.

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Structural Basis of
Indian Society 3.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARNA - CASTE
Very often both the terms are used interchangeably. But the distinction
between these two is of great importance to anthropological understanding of
Indian social structure. Both represent forms of social stratification of Indian
society. Let us consider the main distinction between the concepts of caste
and varna:

• There are four varnas but innumerable castes. As discussed in above

section, the four fold of varna model proposes four varnas namely
Brahaman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. These four varna
represented division of Indian Hindu society into four fold. But there
exists large number of castes and sub-castes in India. Mandal
commission listed three thousand seven hundred and forty three castes in
India as mentioned by Beteille (1996).

• Varna system is based on occupation while caste system is based on

birth. The varna system that existed during Vedic times was based on
the occupation or division of labour. The membership to varna group
was based on one’s karma or occupation rather than birth. As mentioned
above the guna and karma decided one’s position in varna system. On
the other hand, membership to caste is ascribed in nature i.e. determined
by the birth of an individual in a particular caste.

• Varna system is an open system but caste system is a closed system.

The varna system was more or less open system as it provided ample
opportunities to individuals to change their varna on the basis of their
profession. For example, a Kshatriya could become a Brahmin or vice-
versa. We have examples of Parshuram who was a Brahmin by birth but
became a Khstariya, Vishwamitra who was a Kshatriya but later on
became a Brahmin and Vedvyas (author of Mahabharat) who belonged
to Shudra, family of a fisherman but later on carried the task of a
Brahmin. But caste system is considered as a closed system because
membership cannot be changed from one caste to another.

• Varna system has theological sanctions but caste system does not
have. As mentioned earlier in the theory of divine origin of varna
system, it has theological underpinnings of Hinduism. Lord Krishna also
mentioned in the Bhagwad Gita about the creation of four varnas from
four different body parts of the primeval being or Prajapati Brahma. On
the contrary, caste system does not have any divine sanctions. Caste
system can be considered as the degenerated version of varna system
over the centuries. It implies that caste system originated from the varna
system. Swami Vivekanad says “in religion there is no caste…the caste
system is opposed to the religion of Vedanta” (cit. in Kumar et al, 2015).

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3.4 THEORY OF PURUSHARTHA Structure and
Nature of Indian
Social System
The theory of Purushartha determines the values ascribed to human actions
and behaviour. It is a measuring scale to determine whether certain human
actions are permissible or not in a particular society. The term ‘Purushartha’
is a composite Sanskrit term and composed of two separate words ‘Purusha’
+ ‘Artha’. The word ‘Purusha’ denotes ‘human being’ and the word ‘Artha’
means ‘objective of life’. So etymologically speaking the term ‘Purushartha’
implies ‘meaning of human life’ or ‘object of human pursuit’. It is a major
key concept of the Hindu philosophy that guides the human lives and
provides meanings and aims to his purpose in the life.

There are four goals of human life namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and
Moksha. These are discussed briefly as follows:

• Dharma – This is the first and foremost goal of human life. The term
‘Dharma’ is derived from Sanskrit root word ‘Dhri’ which means ‘to
hold together or to preserve’. So, the social significance of ‘Dharma’ is
to maintain social order and stability as highlighted in various classical
Hindu texts. It is characterized by righteousness and strict adherence to
moral and religious values by the individuals and society in general. It is
meant for the welfare of the society by bringing the harmony between
mundane and spiritual affairs of the individuals.

• Artha – This is the second goal of the human life. The word ‘Artha’
means the material and economic aspects of human life. It is
characterized by focus on attainment of economic values and prosperity
by the human beings. As per the Hindu philosophy, fulfillment of
economic and material needs is important in order to achieve the overall
well being of an individual. Artha is a broader concept as per the
Hinduism. It encompasses career, skill, wealth, prosperity and means of
fulfilling the needs of life while following the principle of Dharma.
Artha is essential for the maintenance of dharma in the society. As
having means of wealth enables the individual to perform various duties
to uphold dharma and maintain social harmony.

• Kama – This is the third goal of human life. It is characterized by

gratification of bodily desires, pleasure and love. It includes enjoying the
worldly pleasures through the five senses – including sight, hear, taste,
touch, and smell. Having acquired wealth and money through artha
propels the man on the path of fulfillment of his desires through kama. It
includes aesthetics, beautification, adornment, sensuality, passion, love.

• Moksha – The fourth and last goal of human life is moksha. The term
moksha is derived from Sanskrit root ‘muc’ which means ‘let go’ or ‘set
free’. It is characterized by attainment of salvation, liberation and
fulfillment of spiritual aspirations of human beings. It is meant for self-
realization and understanding the ultimate purpose of human life that is
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Structural Basis of mukti . The release from sufferings involved in every birth form is
Indian Society
known by the terms ‘moksha’/ ‘nirvana’/ ‘mukti’ as per the Hindu
philosophy. Moksha is considered the most important purushartha. The
remaining three are considered the only means to attain the end in itself
which is the last pursuit of human life i.e. moksha.

As per the Hindu philosophy, all the four Purushartha have their relevance
and significance in human life. There is inherent conflict between active
pursuit of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama) and renunciation of all wealth
and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). Scholars point out
the relevance of ‘action with renunciation’ or ‘craving free dharma driven
action’. In case of conflict, dharma is more important as compared to artha
or kama. If dhama is ignored then attainment of artha (wealth) and kama
(pleasure) will lead to social tension and disruption. The relative value of
three Purushartha is as follows: Artha is more important and precedes Kama
and Artha is preceded by Dharma. The focus is on coordination of material
desire and spiritual life. Course of life of an individual is determined by the
doctrine of Purushartha.

The theory of Purushartha provides psycho-moral bases for the Ashrama

theory. Because on the one hand, the individual receives a psychological
training through the Ashramas in terms of lessons in the use and management
of the Purushartha, while on the other hand, in actual practice, he has to deal
with society in accordance with these lessons.

Check Your Progress

2) Name the four purushartha propounded by theory of Purushartha.

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3.5 THEORY OF ASHRAMA

The term Ashrama has Sanskrit root word “srama” which means exert
oneself. It means a temporary stop or a stage of rest in the journey of life to
prepare the man for future. The theory of Ashrama divides the course of an
individual’s life into four distinct stages; each one with distinct role and
responsibilities.

The four stages are – Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha and Sanyasi.

1) Brahmacharya Ashrama – The very first stage during which the boy
undergoes Upanayan ceremony or sacred thread ceremony (initiation
44 rite). Individuals belonging to upper caste or twice born castes (dwija)
 are allowed to go through sacred thread ceremony. The Shudras or Structure and
Nature of Indian
untouchables were not allowed to go through the same as they were not Social System
allowed to receive education traditionally. The chief duty of the
individual is to seek education and learning of Vedas. The other duties
include living in residence of teacher or gurukul, practicing celibacy,
following life of austerity and service. This Ashrama lasts usually till 25
years of age.

2) Grihastha Ashrama: The second stage starts immediately after the

Brahmacharya Ashrama. The individual undergoes marriage ceremony.
Marriage is a social institution that ensures perpetuation of family and
group. The root word of Grihastha is ‘Grih’ meaning home. The
responsibilities of a married life define the Grihastha Ashrama. Here he
fulfills his social relations and obligations towards the men of his guna,
kula, etc. His main focus is on Artha and Kama during this ashrama. The
individual remain in this ashrama till 50 years of age.

3) Vanprastha Ashrama: The third phase of life is Vanprastha Ashrama

that begins at the age of 50 years. Here the individual hand over his
household responsibilities to his children (adults now). The individual
devotes his time to the God and tries to bring his senses under control
through penance or tapasya. The most important duty of the individual
for this ashrama is to focus on chastity and self-control. If a person dies
during this ashrama, his soul attains moksha.

4) Sanyas Ashrama: The last phase of human life begins after 75 years. He
removes all of his worldly ties and breaks off all the relations. He is
expected to devote his entire time for meditation and concentration
towards Param Brahma. The main aim is to attain salvation or moksha in
this ashrama. In the nutshell, Ashrama dharma is not only social in its
implications but it emphasises renunciation of the world in the
Vanprastha and Sanyas ashrama.

Check Your Progress

3) What are the four Ashramas as per the Ashrama theory?

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3.6 THEORY OF KARMA

The term ‘Karma’ literally means action or work. Karma includes all kinds of
intentional action whether mental, verbal or physical (Chakraborty, 2014).
45
Structural Basis of Unconscious, involuntary and unintentional actions are not a part of karma.
Indian Society
The theory of karma is central to Indian philosophy. The sum total of an
individual’s action in the present as well as past life constitutes one’s karma.
Karma is an ongoing spontaneous concept. All human beings are bound to
perform action in their lives. From the moment an individual is born on this
earth, he/ she is involved in actions. Therefore the whole meaning of living is
intertwined with karma.

Chakraborty (2014) writes “the doctrine of karma implies that, every soul
embodied in a human being has the will to make decisions and choose what
actions to take. Those decisions and actions generate karma.”

Theory of karma is based on the principle of cause and effect. It provides for
the causal explanation of life. It bridges the past to the present. The concept
of karma is closely linked with the doctrine of rebirth and salvation. Rebirth
refers to cycle of reincarnation through which all life forms undergoes until
they attain salvation. Good actions and intentions lead to good karma and
future happiness. While bad deeds and intentions lead to bad karma and
sufferings. The law of karma is not restricted to life time of one’s individual
but transcends all his life forms on this earth. One may not immediately see
the effects of his action in near future but he will definitely face the
consequences sometime later in this life or may be in the next life. ‘You reap
as you sow’ – this principle is the basis of karma. In the nutshell, karma acts
as a store of both good and bad actions accumulated over many lives.

The important question emerges here is if karma is an ongoing process then

how liberation or moksha can be achieved? How can one be freed from the
cycle of birth and rebirth? The answer to this is to understand that karma can
be divided into two categories – sakama karma and niskama karma.

Sakama karma refers to engaging in an action keeping in mind the result.

Material desires, expectations and attachment to this world leads to sakama
karma by humans. This ties them to the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Nishkama karma refers to engagement in selfless work without expecting

the desirable outcome. Lord Krishna tells the importance of Nishkama karma
in Bhagwad Gita. It can be explained by the principle of the ‘detached
involvement’ or ‘duty for duty’s sake’. It means individual involvement into
action without consideration of its result or effect. Liberation or moksha can
be achieved through nishkama karma only. An individual attains moksha, the
most important purushartha by engaging in Niskama karma. This is the only
way to get free from the endless cycle of birth- rebirth and associated
sufferings by uniting the aatma with the Paramatma.

3.7 CONCEPT OF RINA

This is one of the fundamental concepts according to Hindu philosophy. This
concept is important as it reminds one of his duties towards the fellow beings,
46
the world and the almighty. The term “rina” implies the debts incurred by an Structure and
Nature of Indian
individual throughout his lifespan. In order to attain salvation or moksha one Social System
is required to discharge his debts.

The Satpatha Brahmana (written in about 800 B.C.) mentions three types of
Rina which are as follows:

1) Deva Rina – as the name indicates this is the debt incurred to the gods.

2) Pitri Rina – this is the debt incurred to the ancestors or Purvaj who act
as protectors of the individual and his family.

3) Rishi Rina – this is the debt incurred to the teachers or Guru for
imparting the knowledge and wisdom to the individual e.g. story of
Eklavya who sacrificed his thumb in the form of guru dakshina on the
demand of Guru Dronacharya.

Apart from these three main types of Rinas, there is one more Rina called
Manushya Rina. It refers to the debt to fellow beings. It is associated with the
concept of charity and philanthropy. It focuses on the principle of paying
back to the society for its welfare.

3.8 SUMMARY
Caste is unavoidable reality of Indian society. Caste can be understood from
different perspectives like textual perspective and field based understanding
of caste. In this unit, we narrowed our focus on understanding the scriptural
or textual perspective of caste and varna system. It is evident that caste and
varna are not mutually exclusive categories but there exist an overlap
between these two. It is not possible for Jati system to operate without the
broader divisions of varna based labour system. This is not to say that caste
system is not changing in the modern times. Anthropologists have tried to
understand the changing inter-relations of caste in Indian society through
various ethnographic studies post 1950s. This will be discussed at length in
the next unit.

We also deliberated about the ideological underpinnings of the social

structure in the traditional Indian context. The features of purushartha,
ashrama, rina and karma pertain to traditional and textual viewpoint
endorsed by the holy Indian texts. These serve as the guiding principles to
live a life without any conflict and aim for the liberation. In the nutshell, we
can say that these principles provided a blue print for individuals to how to
navigate their social life.

3.9 REFERENCES
Beteille, A. (1996). Varna and Jati. Sociological Bulletin, 45(1).

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Structural Basis of Chakraborty, P. (2014). The Law of karma and salvation. International
Indian Society
Journal of Humanities and Social Science Studies, 1(3):193-195. Accessed
from http://oaji.net/articles/2014/1115-1417595573.pdf

Dube, S.C. (1990). Indian Society. New Delhi: National Book Trust.

Dumont, L. (1970). Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its

Implications. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Kumar et al. (2015). Varna-Jati interconnection: Some reflections on caste

and Indian traditions. American International Journal of Research in
Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences. 246-250.

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) The three theories that explain origin of varna system in Indian context
are – Divine theory of origin, Aryan invasion theory and tri guna theory.

2) The four purushartha suggested by the theory of Purushartha are –

Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

3) The four ashramas as per the Ashrama theory are – Brahamachrya,

Grishtha Ashrama, Vanprastha Ashram and Sanyas Ashram.

48