Bahir Dar University

College of Science
Department of Industrial Chemistry
2nd Year Industrial Chemistry Students

Chemical Kinetics and Electrochemistry (Iche 2051)

Chapter Five
Chemical kinetics

1
Introduction
Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates of chemical reactions, the factors that affect these
rates, and the reaction mechanisms by which reactions occur.
Reaction rates
• It is the speed at which a chemical reaction proceeds. It is often expressed in terms of
either the concentration (amount per unit volume) of a product that is formed in a unit of time
or the concentration of a reactant that is consumed in a unit of time.
• vary greatly – some are very fast (burning) and some are very slow (disintegration of a plastic
bottle in sunlight).
• A reaction mechanism is the step-by-step sequence of elementary reactions by which
overall chemical process occurs.
• A mechanism describes in detail exactly what takes place at each stage of an overall
transformation. It also describes each reactive intermediate, activated complex, and transition
state, and which bonds are broken (and in what order), and which bonds are formed (and in
what order).
2
Con…
Factors that affect Reaction Rates
Concentrations of reactants: Reaction rates generally increase as the concentrations of the
reactants are increased.
• The number of particles in a given volume affects the rate at which reactions occur.
• Cramming more particles into a fixed volume increases the concentration of reactants, and, thus,
the frequency of collision.
• Increased collision frequency leads to a higher reaction rate.
Temperature: Reaction rates generally increase rapidly as the temperature is increased.
• Lowering the temperature usually slows down a reaction.
• At higher temperatures, particles move faster.
• The frequency of collisions increases along with the percentage of particles that have enough kinetic
energy to slip over the activation-energy barrier.
• Thus, an increase in temperature causes products to form faster. 3
Con…
Surface area: For reactions that occur on a surface rather than in solution, the rate
increases as the surface area is increased.
• The result of an increase in surface area is an increase in the frequency of collisions
and the reaction rate.
Catalysts: Catalysts speed up reactions and inhibitors slow them down.
• Increasing the temperature is not always the best way to increase the rate of a reaction.
A catalyst is often better.
• Recall that a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being
used up during the reaction.
• Catalysts permit reactions to proceed along a lower energy path.
Pressure of gaseous reactants or products: Increased number of collisions
4
5.1. The rates of chemical reactions
Reaction Rate: The change in the concentration of a reactant or a product with time
(M/s).
Reactant → Products
A→B
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝛥(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵) 𝛥[𝐵]
• Average rate= = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
−∆[A]
• Since reactants go away with time: Rate =
𝛥𝑡
• In general, for the reaction:
• aA + bB → cC + dD
• Rate of reaction:
5
5.2. Reaction rate laws
Rate Law & Reaction Order
• The reaction rate law expression relates the rate of a reaction to the concentrations of
the reactants.
• Each concentration is expressed with an order (exponent).
• The rate constant converts the concentration expression into the correct units of rate
(Ms−1).
• For the general reaction:
aA + bB → cC + dD
Rate = k [A]x [B]y
• x and y are the reactant orders determined from experiment. x and y are NOT the
stoichiometric coefficients.
6
5.2.1. Zero Order Reactions (rare)
 It has no effect on rate.
 It is the rates that do not depend on reactant concentration.
• A → products
−d[A]
• Rate= =k k is in [moles/ (liter sec)] or M/s or Ms–1
dt
• d[A]=−dtk
• using calculus, this equation can be transformed into an equation that relates the conc. A
at the start of the reaction, [Ao], to its concentration at any other time t, [A]:
• ∫ 1 dx = x + C
A 𝑡
• Ao
d A = 0
−𝑘𝑑𝑡
• [A]- [Ao]=-kt
• [A]= [Ao] – kt
• Where [A]= concentration of A after a time t
[Ao]=initial concentration of A at t=0
7
Con…
Half-Life
The half-life of a reaction (t 1/2) is the amount of time required for the concentration
of the reactant to drop to one-half its initial value.
[A] = 1/2 [A0]
We can determine the half-life of a zero-order reaction as follows:
[A]= [Ao] – kt
[A0]
=[Ao] – kt1/2
2
[A0]
−[Ao]= - kt1/2
2
[A0]
- = - kt1/2
2
[𝐀𝟎]
t1/2 = 8
Con…
• Example
1. Using the integrated form of the rate law, determine the rate constant k of a zero-order reaction if the
initial concentration of substance A is 1.5 M and after 120 seconds the concentration of substance A is
0.75 M.
Given required
• [Ao]= 1.5 M k=?
• t=120s
• [A]120s= 0.75 M
• Solution
Integrated form of zero -order rate law:
[A]= [Ao] – kt
0.75M= 1.5M – k ×120s
0.75𝑀−1.5𝑀
= -k
120𝑠
K= 0.00625Ms-1
9
Con…

2. Using the substance from the previous problem, what is the half-life of
substance A if its original concentration is 1.2 M?
Given Required
• [Ao]=1.2M t1/2=?
Solution
• for the half-life:
[𝐀𝟎] 1.2M
t1/2 = = =96sec
𝟐𝒌 2×0.00625𝑀𝑠−1

10
Con…
3. If the original concentration is reduced to 1.0 M in the previous problem,
does the half-life decrease, increase, or stay the same? If the half-life changes
what is the new half-life?
Given Required
• [Ao]=1.0M t1/2=?
Solution
• for the half-life:
[𝐀𝟎] 1.0M
t1/2 = = =80sec
𝟐𝒌 2×0.00625𝑀𝑠−1
• Since this is a zero-order reaction, the half-life is dependent on the
concentration. In this instance, the half-life is decreased when the original
concentration is reduced to 1.0 M. The new half-life is 80 seconds. 11
5.2.2. First Order Reactions
• For the reaction A→ products, the rate is as follows:
−d[A]
• Rate = =k[A] {k is in [1/sec]}
dt
• using calculus, this equation can be transformed into an equation that relates the conc.
A at the start of the reaction, [Ao], to its concentration at any other time t, [A]:
• ∫ (1/x) dx = ln |x| + C
d[A]
• = −kdt
[A]
A d[A] 𝑡
• Ao [A]
= 0
−kdt
[A]
• ln =-kt
[A]o
• ln[A]= ln A o – kt or [A]=
12
Con…
• half-life of a first order reaction
[A] = 1/2 [A0]
[A]= [A]o × e-kt
[A]o
2
=[A]o × e-kt1/2
1
= -kt1/2
e
2

ln2-1 = - kt1/2
ln2 0.693
t 1/2= k = k

• for first order reaction half-life doesn’t depends on initial concentration

13
Con…
• Example
1. A certain first order reaction is 45.0% complete in 65 s. Determine the rate constant and the
half-life for this process.
• Solution:
Integrated form of first-order rate law:
ln A = -kt + ln Ao
45% complete means 55% remains:
ln 0.55 = - k (65 s) + ln 1
k = 0.0091975 s-1 (I kept a few guard digits for the next calculation.)
for the half-life:
ln 0.5 = - (0.0091975 s-1) (t) + ln 1
t = 75.4 s
You can also use this:
ln 2
𝑡1 2 =
𝑘
to calculate the half-life. 14
Con…
2. A certain reaction is first order, and 540. seconds after initiation of the reaction,
32.5% of the reactant remains. What is the rate constant for this reaction? At what time
after initiation of the reaction of the reaction will 10.0% of the reactant remain?
Solution:
• Integrated form of first-order rate law:
ln A = -kt + ln Ao
ln 0.325 = - (k) (540. s) + ln 1.00
k = 0.002081352 s-1
• Note that the problem specified the amount remaining, not the amount decomposed.
Integrated form of first-order rate law:
ln A = -kt + ln Ao
ln 0.100 = - (0.002081352 s-1) (t) + ln 1.00
t = 1106 s 15
Con…

3.

16
3. Second Order Reactions
• A second order reaction is one where one reactant is raised to the second power or two
reactants each raised to the first power.
a) Second order in one component
• A → products
−d[A]
• Rate= =k[A]2
dt
• Relying on calculus, the law can be used to derive the following:
𝐴 d[A] 𝑡
• 𝐴𝑂 [A]2
= 0
−𝑘𝑑𝑡

1 A
• - = −𝑘𝑡
A A0
1 −1
• - -( )= −𝑘𝑡
[A] Ao
𝟏 𝟏
• = + 𝒌𝒕
[𝐀] 𝐀 𝐨
17
Con…
• half-life of second order reaction
Ao
• [A]=
2
1 1
• = + 𝑘𝑡
[A] Ao
1 1
• Ao = + kt1/2
Ao
2
2 1
• = + kt1/2
Ao Ao

• t1/2 = 𝟏
𝒌𝐀𝐨

18
Con…
b) First order in each of two components
• A +B → products
− d[A]
• Rate = =k[A][B]
dt

19
Con…

1.

20
Con…

21
Con…

22
4. Third Order Reactions
• For a simple third order reaction • half-life of third order reaction
A → products [A]=
Ao
2
−d[A]
Rate= =k[A]3 1 1
dt = +2 𝑘𝑡
[A]2 A o2
• Relying on calculus, the law can be used to derive 1 1
the following: Ao = +2 kt1/2
{ 2 }2 A o2
𝐴 d[A] 𝑡
𝐴𝑂 [A]3
= 0
−𝑘𝑑𝑡 4
=
1
+ 2kt1/2
A o2 A o2
1 A 𝟑
- = −2𝑘𝑡 t1/2 =
[A]2 A 𝟐𝒌 𝐀 𝐨𝟐
0
1 −1
- -( )= −2𝑘𝑡
[A]2 A o2
𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝟐𝒌𝒕
[𝐀]𝟐 𝐀 𝐨𝟐

23
Con…
• Summary of Rate Laws for Zero-, First-, Second and Third-Order Reactions
Zero-Order First-Order Second-Order Third -order
2 3
rate law rate = k rate = k[A] rate = k[A] Rate=k[A]
−1 −1 −1 −1 -3 -1
units of rate constant Ms s M s M S

integrated rate law [A]=−kt+[A] ln[A]=−kt+ln[A]0 1 =kt+ ( 1 ) 1 = 1 + 2𝑘𝑡

A Ao [𝐴]2 𝐴 𝑜2
0

1 vs.t
plot needed for linear fit of [A] vs. t ln[A] vs. t 1/[A]vs. t
[𝐴]2
rate data

relationship between slope of k = −slope k = −slope k = slope k =slope

linear plot and rate constant

half-life t1/2=[A]0/2 t1/2=0.693/kt t1/2=1/[A]0k t1/2 = 3

2𝑘 𝐴 𝑜2
kt
24
Con…
• Example
1.

25
Con…

26
Con…

27
Con…

28
Con…
2.

3.

4.

29
Complex Reactions and Mechanisms
• Mechanisms: A series of elementary steps that make up a reaction.
E.g. for A + B + 2C → D + E
Mechanism could be: A + B → F Elementary
F+C→G+D Single Step
G+C→E Reactions
F and G are reaction intermediates
Molecularity: The number of molecules that come together to react in one
elementary step.
For single step elementary reactions, Molecularity = Order
A → products 1st order rate = k [A] Unimolecular
A → products 2nd order rate = k [A] 2 Bimolecular
A + B → prod. 2nd order rate = k [A][B] Bimolecular
A + B + C → prod. 3rd order rate = k [A][B][C] Termolecular Etc...
• Molecularity is the number of molecules that need to collide, and in one step
form the products.
30
Some Simple Mechanisms
1. Reversible or opposing reactions
 Reversible reaction approaching to equilibrium

• Let

31
Con…
1st order reversible reactions
If we start with pure ‘A’ species, [A]0≠0 and [B]0=0, t=0
Now, [A]0=[A] +[B]
[B]= [A]0-[A]
−d[A]
=k1[A]- k-1[B] = k1[A]- k-1([A]0-[A])
dt
k−1
= k1+k-1 ([A]- [A]0)
k1+k−1
At equilibrium [A]eq, k1=[B]eq k-1
[B]eq k1 [A]0−[A]eq
= = keq=
[A]eq k−1 [A]eq

k−1
[A]eq= [A]0
k1+k−1
−d[A] k−1
Hence: = k1+k-1 ([A]- [A]0) 32
dt k1+k−1
Con…
−d[A]
• = k1+k-1 ([A]- [A]eq)
dt
𝐴 d[A] 𝑡 − 1)
• 𝐴𝑂 [A]− [A]eq
= 0 −(k1 + k 𝑑𝑡
ln A −[A]eq −1 )t
• =−(𝑘1 + 𝑘
[A]0− [A]eq
• Where [A]eq= concentration of A at equilibrium
k1 = rate constant for forward reaction
k-1 = rate constant for backward reaction

33
2.Consecutive or sequential reaction:
• A chemical reaction in which the product form is further decomposed into
another product such kind reaction of reaction is known as sequential reaction.

• If rate constant of reaction is K1 and K2 then the rate of reaction is for the reaction

• For the determination of concentration of A after time t, integrating equation (1)

• For the determination of concentration of B after time t,

34
Con…
• For the determination of concentration of B after time t,

• Net rate of formation of [B]

35
Con…
• Multiply eK2t to both side and integrating

36
Con…
• For the determination of concentration of [C] after time t,

• Since by law of mass balance [A]0=[A]t +[B]t+[C]t

37
Con…
• Case (1): K1 >>>K2
• Concentration of [B]t: when K1>>>K2 in this case we can observed that reaction first (A to B) occurs first
and gives nearly to completion before reaction (B to C) take place. Thus nearly all the (A) is converted to the
intermediate (B) before any appreciable conversion of (B to C), thus

• Concentration of [C]t:

38
Con…
• Graphical representation:

• In general concentration of [A] decreases exponentially, and the concentration of [B] Initially
increases up to a maximum and then decrease therefore and concentration of [C] increases
steadily until it reaches its final value [A]0, when all A has changed into [C]

39
Con…
• Case (2): K2 >>>K1
• Concentration of [B]t:

• Since K2>>>K1 then second term in parenthesis rapidly approaches zero while the first term is still near
unity consequently concentration of [B] approaches to K1/K2 [A] and decay more slowly according to

• Since k1/K2 is very small, the maximum concentration of [B] is much less than [A]0
40
Con…
• Concentration of [C]t: Graphical representation:

41
3. Parallel Reactions
• Parallel 1st order reactions
 When a compound decomposed in too many paths mostly organic compound it
can able to react in two different ways to give two different products:

−d[A]
• Rate= =k1[A] + k2[A]= (k1 + k2) [A]
dt
𝐴 d[A] 𝑡
• 𝐴𝑂 [A]
= 0 −(k1 + k2)𝑑𝑡

• [A] = [A]o × e-(k1 + k2) t

42
Con…
• For B:
−d[B]
• Rate= =k1[A] = k1 [A]o × e-(k1 + k2) t
dt
• Rearranging and integrating:
−k1 [A]o
B = × exp (-(k1 + k2) t + constant)
k1 + k2
• To find the constant; for t=0, [B]0=0
k1 [A]o -(k1 + k2) t
• Hence: constant = Therefore [B]= × (1- e )
k1 [A]o
k1 + k2 k1 + k2
• For c:
• At any time, t, [A], [B] and [C] must sum to [A]0. i.e. [A]+ [B] + [C]= [A]0
• hence [C]= [A]0-[A]- [B]
k2 [A]o
• [C]= × (1- e-(k1 + k2) t)
k 1 + k2 43
4. Chain reaction
• A chain reaction is a reaction whose mechanism has steps where the product of
one step is the reactant in another step, in such a way that the reaction can occur
by cycling through a chain of such steps in the mechanism.
• The steps that participate in the cycling are

 Initiation step creates an intermediate that enter into the propagation steps
propagation steps, if they move the extent of reaction forward, and
Inhibition steps, if they move the extent of reaction backward (typically the
reverse of the propagation steps).
 Termination step removes the intermediates that allow the chain reaction to
proceed.
44
Con…
• This type of reaction involves free radicals.
• e.g., H2+Br2 → 2HBr
• furthermore, the elementary steps for the same can be proposed as
𝑘1
• Initiation: Br2 > Br. + Br.
𝑘2
• Propagation: Br. + H2 > HBr +H.
𝑘3
• H.+ Br2 > HBr + Br.
𝑘4
• Inhibition: H. + HBr > H2 +Br2
𝑘5
• Termination: Br. + Br. > Br2
𝑑[𝐻𝐵𝑟]
 To find the rate law: Rate = =????
𝑑𝑡
 Looking at [HBr] consumption and formation
𝑑[𝐻𝐵𝑟]
• =k2[Br.] [H2] +k3 [H.] [Br2]-k4[H.] [HBr] (1)
𝑑𝑡
45
Con…
 Applying steady state approximation:
𝑑[𝐻.] 𝑑[𝐵𝑟.]
• i.e., =0 or =0 (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 The life spent time for free radicals is zero at steady state.
𝑑[𝐻.]
• = k2[Br.] [H2] +k3 [H.] [Br2]-k4[H.] [HBr] (3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑[𝐵𝑟.]
• = 2k1[Br2]- k2[Br.] [H2] +k3 [H.] [Br2]-k4[H.] [HBr]-2k5[Br.]2 (4)
𝑑𝑡
 Using equation (3), solving for [H.]
• k2[Br.] [H2] = k3 [H.] [Br2]-k4[H.] [HBr]
• = [H.] (k3 [Br2]-k4 [HBr])
k2[Br.] [H2]
• [H.] =
k3 [Br2]−k4 [HBr]

46
Con…
 Equating eq (3) and eq (4)
• 2k1[Br2]- 2k5[Br.]2
• Solving for: [Br.] = k1 [Br2] (5)
 Using eq (5) in eq (6) k5
k2[Br.] [H2]
• [H.] = (6)
k3 [Br2]−k4 [HBr]
•
k2 k1 [Br2] [H2]
• [H.] = k5 (7)
k3 [Br2]−k4 [HBr]
 Using eq (5) and eq (7) in eq (2)

47
Con…
𝑑[𝐻𝐵𝑟]
• =k2[Br.] [H2] +k3 [H.] [Br2]-k4[H.] [HBr]
𝑑𝑡
k2 k1 [Br2] [H2] k2 k1 [Br2] [H2]
= k2√ (k1/k5 [Br2] [H2] + k3 k5 [Br2]- k4 k5 [HBr]
k3 [Br2]−k4 [HBr] k3 [Br2]−k4 [HBr]
/
k1 1 2
2 k2[H2] .[Br2]
k5
= 1+ 𝑘 4 ([𝐻𝐵𝑟])/([𝐵𝑟2] )
𝑘3

 The starting equation/ is:

3 2
k′[H2] [Br2]
• 𝐵𝑟2 +𝑘"[𝐻𝐵𝑟]
k4 k1
• K” = k’=2 k2
k3 k5

48
Acid –Base catalyzed reaction
 Various homogeneous catalytic reactions are catalyzed by acids and bases.
These reactions are known as acid –base catalysis.
 The real catalysts are the H+and OH- ions in acid and base catalysis
respectively.
• Types of Acid-base catalysis: There are three types of acid-base catalysis.
1. Specific hydrogen ion catalysis: These reactions are catalyzed by H+ ions
only. For example, inversion of cane sugar, which is catalyzed by H+ ions only.

The rate of this reaction is proportional to the concentration of hydrogen ions

present in the solution.

49
Con…
2. Specific hydroxyl ion catalysis: These reactions are catalyzed by OH-ions only. For
example, the conversion of acetone into diacetone is catalyzed by OH-ions only.

3. Hydrogen and hydroxyl ion catalysis: These are the reactions in which both H+and
OH- ions simultaneously act as catalysis.
• For example,
• (i)Hydrolysis of ester is catalyzed by H+ as well as by OH-ions.

(ii)Hydrolysis of nitrile is catalyzed by H+as well as by OH-ions.

50
Mechanism of acid –base catalysis:
• In acid-base catalysis also, there is formation of an intermediate complex which then
dissociates to give products. The mechanism of acid base catalysis can be explained by some
examples.
i. The catalyzed transformation of α-glucose into β-glucose

• where H+(I) is a proton supplied by acid catalyst, GH is the -Glucose, HGH+ is the
intermediate complex which is unstable, HG is the -glucose and H+(II) is removed by base
catalyst.
ii. Hydrolysis of Ethyl Acetate catalyzed by proton:This can be represented as:

51
Con…
Decomposition of acid base catalysis:
iii.
• Acid-base catalyzed reactions take place by transfer of proton from an acid to a
substance molecule (S) or from substance molecule to the base. Hence the
reaction between an acid HA and substrate S may be written as:

k1and k2 are the rate constants of forward and backward reactions respectively.

• Immediately after the start of the reaction, SH+ will attain a steady state
concentration. Hence,

52
Con…

53
Con…

Hence, the reaction rate is proportional to [H+] even in the presence of HA and A-. This is a
simple case of specific acid catalysis

54
Enzyme catalyzed reaction
 Enzymes are complex organic compounds which are produced by living plants and animals.
 These enzymes have dimensions in the colloidal range (1000-1000000A) and are very specific
catalysts.
 Due to their colloidal behavior in solutions, their kinetic behavior is similar to that of
heterogeneous process. So, enzyme catalysis is also known as “micro-heterogeneous catalysis”.
 Some examples are:

 Table 1 shows some examples of enzymes, their source and the reactions catalyzed by them.

55
Characteristics of enzyme Catalysis:
1.All enzymes are proteins and have common properties. They form colloidal solutions and are of
high molecular weight.
2. Enzymes are associated with every chemical reaction that occurs in the living system.
3. Enzymes generally accelerate biochemical reactions by reducing the energy requirement
(activation energy).
4. Enzymes do not alter the amount or nature of the product.
5. Enzymes do not affect the amount of energy released or absorbed during the reaction.
6. Enzymes are not destroyed by the reaction they catalyze and so can be used again. However, a
given molecule of an enzyme cannot be used indefinitely because it is readily inactivated by heat or
action of acid etc. Inorganic catalysts are highly stable and can be used over again.
7.Very small amounts of enzymes are required to catalyze a reaction.
8. Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions at very low temperatures.
9. Enzymes are specific in their action. An enzyme that can hydrolyze starch is unable to hydrolyze
cellulose. For this, another enzyme, cellulose, is needed.
10.Most enzymes can work in either direction i.e., they are capable of operating reversibly. That
is, one and the same enzyme can catalyze the breakdown as well as the synthesis of the substance.
56
Kinetics of enzyme catalysis:
• Enzymes are the best-known catalysts. The kinetics of enzyme catalyzed reaction is explained by Henry’s theory. According to
him, enzyme first combines with reactant (substrate) to form an enzyme substrate complex which remains in equilibrium with the
enzyme and substrate.
𝐸+𝑆↔𝐸𝑆
• where E is the enzyme, S is the substrate and ES is an enzyme-substrate complex. The rates of forward and backward reactions
are denoted by k1and k2. The enzyme substrate complex ES can decompose to form products with simultaneous regeneration of the
enzyme.

57
Con…

58
Con…

∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆 59
Reaction rate theories
1. Collision theory
 collision theory is used to relate the properties of particles to the rates of chemical reactions.
 According to collision theory, atoms, ions, and molecules can react to form products when they collide if the
particles have enough kinetic energy.
 Particles that do not have enough energy to react bounce apart unchanged when they collide.
• Example
• An effective collision of oxygen and hydrogen molecules produces water molecules.

An ineffective collision of oxygen and hydrogen molecules produces no reaction; the reactants bounce apart
unchanged.

The minimum energy that colliding particles must have in order to react is called the activation energy. 60
Con…
• When two reactant particles collide, they may form an activated complex.
• An activated complex is an unstable arrangement of atoms that forms for a moment at the peak of the activation-
energy barrier.
• The activated complex forms only if the colliding particles have enough energy and if the atoms are oriented
properly.
• When two reactant particles collide, they may form an activated complex.
• The lifetime of an activated complex is typically about 10-13 seconds.
• Its brief existence ends with the reformation of the reactants or with the formation of products.
• Thus, the activated complex is sometimes called the transition state.
• The activation-energy barrier must be crossed before reactants are converted to products.

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Con…
• Remember: An endothermic reaction absorbs heat, and an exothermic reaction releases heat.

• Collision theory explains why some reactions are extremely slow at room temperature.
 Carbon and oxygen react when charcoal burns, but the reaction has a high activation energy.
• The O—O and C—C bonds must be broken to form the activated complex.
• At room temperature, the collisions of oxygen and carbon molecules are not energetic
enough to break the bonds.
• Thus, the reaction rate of carbon with oxygen at room temperature is essentially zero.
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Con…
2.Transition state theory
 also called activated-complex theory or theory of absolute reaction rates,
 At the moment of collision, molecules with enough energy and the right orientation combine
to form an activated complex
 The activated complex can either revert back to reactants or decompose to products
 The exact nature of the activated complex is difficult to determine
 Less energy is required to form an activated complex than to beak bonds
 Energy diagram

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