Numerical Methods in

Structures and Geotechnics

2023/2024

Stress state and constitutive models

1. AT REST STRESS STATE

S cross-section is horizontal
but has small deviations up
and down so that it passes
only by particle contacts and
does not cut any particle.

Horizontal plane (S cross section)

1. AT REST STRESS STATE

Horizontal plane (S cross section)

1. AT REST STRESS STATE

Now the soil mass is

not dry, it is
submerged from some
depth where there is
the water table N.F.

hw

Horizontal plane (S cross section)

1. AT REST STRESS STATE

u = γw . hw
Pore water pressure

N.F.

hw

Horizontal plane (S cross section)

1. AT REST STRESS STATE

Effective stress principle

1) The effective stress is the total
stress deduced from the pore
water pressure
2) The effective stress controls the
mechanical behaviour of the soil

Effective Total Pore water

stress stress pressure

Total stress component

installed in the solid skeleton
1. AT REST STRESS STATE

• In geotechnical modeling problems, the definition of the initial stress field is of

fundamental importance. Stress-strain behavior is dependent of the current stress
state.
• Key concepts:
Principal stresses: vertical and horizontal. 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑉 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝐻
The calculation of the vertical stress results from purely gravitational
considerations.
• Total vertical stress: total weight of the soil present above a given layer per
unit surface area of the soil mass.
• Effective stress: part of the total stress that is resisted by soil particles

• Pore water pressure: can be defined as the pressure exerted by the pore
water
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖
❖ Effective stress controls the mechanical
behaviour of the soil!
1. AT REST STRESS STATE
Definition of the initial stress state -
Example:

γ = 20 kN/m3
γw = 10 kN/m3
𝜎𝑣0 = K0 =0.5
K0 – coefficient of
𝑢0 = earth pressure at rest

′
𝜎𝑣0 =
′ Z = 10 m
𝜎ℎ0 =
𝜎ℎ0 =
1. AT REST STRESS STATE
Definition of the initial stress state -
Example:

𝜎𝑣0 = γ𝑧 = 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎 γ = 20 kN/m3

γw = 10 kN/m3
𝑢0 = γ𝑤 𝑧 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 K0 =0.5
K0 – coefficient of
′ earth pressure at rest
𝜎𝑣0 = γ − γ𝑤 𝑧 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎
′ ′
𝜎ℎ0 = 𝐾0 𝜎𝑣0 = 50 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Z = 10 m
′
𝜎ℎ0 = 𝜎ℎ0 + 𝑢0 = 150 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2. TYPES OF ANALYSES
Types of analyses

Total stress analyses Effective stress analyses

• Undrained conditions (Δu ≠ o) • Drained conditions (Δu = o)
• Saturated clayey soils • Long term analysis of clayey soils
• Short term conditions (rapid • Short or long term analysis of sands
loading or unloading) • Mohr-Coulomb criterion: Strength
• Tresca criterion: Strength parameters – cohesion (c’) and angle
parameter – Undrained strength of shearing resistance (ϕ’)
(cu)
2. TYPES OF ANALYSES
Example of total stress analysis
Mohr-Coulomb
envelope
t = (σv – σh) /2 𝜙′

Δu Tresca envelope

Soft clay soil cu K0 line

c’
Δ𝑢 > 0 u0
P s' = (σ'v + σ'h) /2
Short term strength < Long term strength
Undrained strength < Drained strength

Stability analyses should be carried out for the end-of-construction conditions,

assuming undrained conditions and using total stress analysis due to its simplicity!
3. CONSTITUTIVE LAWS
Stress-strain behaviour

Constitutive relationship: the relationship between stresses and strains

E
Stresses Strains

Δσ = 𝐷 . Δε

Constitutive matrix

Δ𝜎𝑥 𝐷11 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷14 𝐷15 𝐷16 Δ𝜀𝑥

Δ𝜎𝑦 𝐷21 𝐷22 𝐷23 𝐷24 𝐷25 𝐷26 Δ𝜀𝑦
Δ𝜎𝑧 𝐷 𝐷32 𝐷33 𝐷34 𝐷35 𝐷36 Δ𝜀𝑧
Δ𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 31 × Δ𝜀
𝐷41 𝐷42 𝐷43 𝐷44 𝐷45 𝐷46 𝑥𝑦
Δ𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝐷51 𝐷52 𝐷53 𝐷54 𝐷55 𝐷56 Δ𝜀𝑦𝑧
Δ𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝐷61 𝐷62 𝐷63 𝐷64 𝐷65 𝐷66 Δ𝜀𝑥𝑧
6𝑥1 6𝑥6 6𝑥1
3. CONSTITUTIVE LAWS
Stress-strain behaviour

Elastic behaviour: all strains are recovered when the load is removed. If the relation is linear,
the material is linearly elastic. If not, the material is nonlinearly elastic.

Linear Nonlinear
elastic elastic

Elastic perfectly plastic behaviour: up to a given value (yield stress), the material exhibits elastic
behaviour. After that, the material presents purely plastic deformations under a constant stress equal
to the yield stress. The elastic range can be linear or nonlinear.

Linear Nonlinear
elastic elastic
3. CONSTITUTIVE LAWS
Stress-strain behaviour

Elastoplastic behaviour: when some of the strain are not recovered

on unloading. The unrecovered are called plastic strain.

Perfectly plastic behavior: there are no elastic or recoverable strains.

3. CONSTITUTIVE LAWS
Stress-strain behaviour

• Elastoplastic strain softening and hardening behaviour: in some cases of elastoplastic

materials, after the stresses have reached the yield stress, this does not remain constant, but may
increase (hardening behaviour) or decrease (softening behaviour);

• Viscoelastic and viscoelastoplastic behaviour: the mechanical behaviour depends on time.

➢ Two major concerns/purposes of geotechnical analysis:

• Prediction of ground failure condition
• Path from initial stress state to failure condition
4. FAILURE CRITERION

Definition: soils and rocks, as other materials, have a finite strength. There is, therefore, a
limit that divides the stress states compatible with the resistance of soils and rocks from
those that they cannot resist. This boundary is called the FAILURE SURFACE and its
equation corresponds to the so-called FAILURE CRITERION:

𝑞
Impossible stress 𝐹=𝑓 𝜎 −𝑘 =0
states (F>0)
Stress Stress variable
Failure → Yield surface that depends
state
(F=0) on hardening
parameter
𝑓 𝜃
Possible
stress states
(F<0)
Elastic strains Plastic strains

𝑝
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Stress state
As mentioned before, the definition of the stress state at a point:

• Requires knowledge of the stresses acting on three perpendicular

surfaces of a given reference system: 9 components;

• These 9 components are reduced to 6 since it is necessary to ensure

equilibrium in relation to the rotation around the 3 axes:

𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑧
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎 = 𝜏
𝜎 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝑥𝑦
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜏𝑥𝑧
Normal and
Equilibrium of
shear stress
moments components
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Stress state
𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑦
The magnitude of the 6 stress components necessary 𝜎𝑧
𝜎 = 𝜏
to define the stress state depends on the selected 𝑥𝑦
reference system 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜏𝑥𝑧
The alternative is to define other parameters STRESS
independent of the reference system INVARIANTS

Some options:
1. Principal stresses and their directions
2. First invariant of the stress tensor (I1), second invariant of the deviatoric
tensor (J2) and the angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)
3. Mean stress (p), deviatoric stress (q) and angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)
4. FAILURE CRITERION
1. Principal stresses and their directions
2. First invariant of the stress tensor (I1), second invariant of the deviatoric
tensor (J2) and the angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)
3. Mean stress (p), deviatoric stress (q) and angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)

For isotropic materials (materials that have the same properties in all directions)
𝜎1 0 0
only 3 parameters are required (𝜎1 , 𝜎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎3 ) since
𝜎 = 0 𝜎2 0
the response of the material is the same in all
directions
0 0 𝜎3
The magnitude of the principal stresses can be calculated solving the characteristic
equation: −𝜎 3 + 𝐼 𝜎 2 − 𝐼 𝜎 + 𝐼 = 0 (𝐼 , 𝐼 and 𝐼 : invariants of the stress tensor)
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝐼1 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 2 2 2
𝐼2 = 𝜏 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 − 𝜏𝑥𝑧 − 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝐼3 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑧
2 − 𝜎 𝜏2 − 𝜎 𝜏2
𝑦 𝑥𝑧 𝑧 𝑥𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧
4. FAILURE CRITERION
1. Principal stresses and their directions
2. First invariant of the stress tensor (I1), second invariant of the
deviatoric tensor (J2) and the angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)
3. Mean stress (p), deviatoric stress (q) and angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)

Related to the distance measured in the isotropic axis

𝐼1 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 between the origin and the deviatoric plane (plane
perpendicular to the hydrostatic axis that contains the
stress point)
Deviatoric plane

𝜎2 Hydrostatic axis
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3

P
3
𝐼
3 1
𝜎1
4. FAILURE CRITERION
1. Principal stresses and their directions
2. First invariant of the stress tensor (I1), second invariant of the
deviatoric tensor (J2) and the angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)
3. Mean stress (p), deviatoric stress (q) and angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)

1 2 2
Related to the
𝐽2 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2 2
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 2
𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 2
𝜏𝑥𝑧 radial distance
6 between the
𝜎2 isotropic axis and
𝜃 angle of the deviatoric plane that defines the the stress point
position of the stress point
𝜃 = 30°

𝜃 = 0°
𝜃
2𝐽2
P
𝜎1
𝜎3 𝜃 = −30°

Deviatoric plane
4. FAILURE CRITERION
1. Principal stresses and their directions
2. First invariant of the stress tensor (I1), second invariant of the deviatoric
tensor (J2) and the angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)
3. Mean stress (p), deviatoric stress (q) and angle of the deviatoric plane
(θ)

1 1 𝐼1
𝑝 = (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 ) = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 =
3 3 3

1 2 2 2
𝑞= 𝜎 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 =
2 1

1 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 + 6 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 3𝐽2
2 𝑥

1
In the triaxial plane, p= 3 (𝜎1 +2. 𝜎3 )
there are two equal 𝜎2 = 𝜎3
principal stresses q= 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
4. FAILURE CRITERION
1. Principal stresses and their directions
2. First invariant of the stress tensor (I1), second invariant of the deviatoric
tensor (J2) and the angle of the deviatoric plane (θ)
3. Mean stress (p), deviatoric stress (q) and angle of the deviatoric plane
(θ)
p is related to the distance measured in the isotropic axis between origin and the deviatoric
plane that contants the stress point
q is related to the radial distance between the isotropic axis and the stress point
𝜃 is the angle of the deviatoric plane that defines the position of the stress point
𝜎2
𝜎2 Hydrostatic axis
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3
𝜃 = 30°
P

𝜃 = 0°
3p 𝜃
2
P
q
𝜎1 3 𝜎1
𝜎3 𝜃 = −30°
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Different failure criterion:

➢ Tresca
➢ Von Mises
➢ Mohr-Coulomb
➢ Drucker-Prager
➢ Gudheus
➢ Hoek-Brown
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Different failure criterion:

➢ Tresca
➢ Von Mises
➢ Mohr-Coulomb
➢ Drucker-Prager
➢ Gudheus
➢ Hoek-Brown
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Tresca failure criterion:
• The Tresca model is independent of I1, so it can only simulate the behaviour of materials whose
strength is independent of the mean stress without permanent volumetric strains
e.g., saturated clays in undrained conditions

• is expressed in terms of total stresses and apply to undrained soil behaviour conditions.

• the failure at a given point occurs whenever the maximum shear stress reaches a given limit
value
• The failure criterion relates the undrained strength, cu, to the radius of the Mohr's circle at failure.

• The yield function is defined as: 1

𝐹 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 − 𝑐𝑢 = 0
2
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Tresca failure criterion:

• In principal total stress space this yield function plots as a

regular hexagonal cylinder, which has the space
diagonal as its line of symmetry
• The hexagonal shape, which has six-fold symmetry in the
deviatoric plane, arises due to the six permutations of the
major and minor principal stress
• For finite element analysis, it is more convenient to rewrite
the yield function in terms of the stress invariants

𝐹= 𝐽2 . cos 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑢 = 0

1
𝐹= 𝑞. cos 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑢 = 0
3
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion:

• The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is widely used in soils and rocks and establishes that the
shear stress that causes failure at a given point varies linearly with the normal stress in the
failure plane (𝑓 – failure): ′
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐′ + 𝜎𝑓 tan ∅′
• In this model, failure occurs for stress states where the Mohr circle is tangent to the strength envelope

• This strength envelope is typically defined in terms of two parameters: effective cohesion , c’,
and the angle of shearing resistance (effective internal friction angle), 𝝓’.

• The yield function (in terms

of principal stresses)
𝐹 = 𝜎1′ 1 − sin 𝜙′ − 𝜎3′ 1 + sin 𝜙 ′ − 2𝑐′ cos 𝜙′ = 0
becomes:
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion:

• The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is widely used in soils and rocks and establishes that the
shear stress that causes failure at a given point varies linearly with the normal stress in the
failure plane (𝑓 – failure): ′
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐′ + 𝜎𝑓 tan ∅′

In general,

▪ Granular soils
▪ Normally consolidated plastic soils c’ = 0
▪ Overconsolidated plastic soils
▪ Residual soils (due to their cemented structure) c’ ≠ 0
▪ Artificially cemented materials
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion:

• In principal effective stress space the yield function plots as an

irregular hexagonal cone;

• The six-fold symmetry arises from the possible permutations of

principal stresses.

• For finite element analysis, it is more convenient to rewrite the

yield function in terms of the stress invariants

𝐹= 𝐽2 3 cos 𝜃 + 3 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜙 𝐼1 + 3𝑐 cot 𝜙 = 0 Irregular hexagon:

different strengths
1 (compression and
𝐹= 𝑞 3 cos 𝜃 + 3 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃 − 3 sin 𝜙 𝑝 + 𝑐 cot 𝜙 = 0
3 extension stress
paths)
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Tresca failure criterion:

https://soilmodels.com/soilanim/
4. FAILURE CRITERION
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion:

https://soilmodels.com/soilanim/
5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Linear elastic model
➢ Linear elastic perfectly plastic model
➢ Hyperbolic models
➢ Cambridge models (Cam Clay, modified Cam Clay, p-q-θ)
➢ Soft soil and soft soil creep
➢ Hoek-Brown

The choice of a suitable constitutive model that represents the behavior of soil should take into
account two key factors:

• The model to be adopted should be able to simulate the soil behavior in a satisfactory way;

• The model should be relatively simple, so as not to become prohibitive given the number of
parameters it involves or the difficulty of obtaining them through the usual laboratory and in-situ
tests.

➢ These two factors are often contradictory!

5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Linear elastic model

• The linear elastic model is based on Hooke’s law, establishing a linear relationship between stresses
and strains.

• Parameters involved in the definition of the model:

❑ Elasticity module (Young modulus) – E
❑ Poisson ratio – ν

• Although, in general, this constitutive model is not suitable for the modelling of soil behaviour, it
is often used in the modelling of high-stiffness elements introduced into the soil, such as
structural elements or intact rock masses.
5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Linear elastic perfectly plastic model

• The linear elastic perfectly plastic model (also known as Mohr-Coulomb model) can be used as a
first approximation of soil behaviour. It is used to model soil behaviour in general.

• The linear elastic part of the linear elastic perfectly plastic model is based on Hooke’s law of
isotropic elasticity

• The perfectly plastic part is based on the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion (or Tresca).

• Perfectly plastic model is a constitutive model with a fixed yield surface, i.e. a yield surface that
is fully defined by model parameters and not affected by (plastic) straining.
5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Linear elastic perfectly plastic model

Advantages:
• A well-known model that offers first approximation of soil behaviour
• Requires parameters which are generally familiar to most geotechnical engineers and which
can be obtained from basic tests on soil samples
• Soil failure is generally well captured (at least for drained conditions)

Main limitations:
• Failure and yield stresses are coincident;
• Limited ability to model deformation behaviour before failure, especially when stress
level changes significantly or multiple different stress paths are followed;
• A constant Young's modulus is considered. The definition of the value to adopt must be
made with some prudence:
▪ For materials with a large linear elastic range it is realistic to use: 𝐸0
▪ For loading of soils one generally uses: 𝐸50
▪ Considering unloading problems, as in the case of tunneling and
excavations, one needs an unload-reload modulus: 𝐸𝑢𝑟
5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Hyperbolic models
More
realistic !
▪ Elasto-plastic model whose yield surface
is not fixed but expands generating
plastic strains

▪ Can simulate both soft and stiff soils

▪ Uses Mohr-Coulomb of Tresca failure criteria

Examples:
- Hardening Soil Model (PLAXIS ®)
- Hardening Soil Model Small Strains (PLAXIS ®)
5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Hyperbolic models

Parameters:

𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐸50 Secant stiffness obtained from drained triaxial tests

𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐸𝑜𝑒𝑑 Secant stiffness obtained from oedometric drained tests

𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐸𝑢𝑟 Stiffness in unloading – reloading

ν𝑢𝑟 Unloading reloading Poisson ratio

𝑚 Stiffness stress dependence

𝑐 ′ , 𝜙 ′ , ψ or 𝑐𝑢 Strength parameters
5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Hyperbolic models

Limitations:

❖ Does not consider the soil stiffness for small strains

❖ 𝐸𝑢𝑟 is constant – there is not a stiffness degradation with strain
❖ For monotonic loads it can lead to low precision especially in
overconsolidated soils

The Hardening Model Small Strain accounts for this !

5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Cambridge models

❖ First Cam Clay model and then other related models: Modified Cam Clay and p-q-θ
❖ Models based on critical state soil mechanics
❖ It was developed for clays where the volumetric strain is more importante and shear strain
❖ Elasto-plastic models with strain hardening
5. CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
➢ Soft soil and Soft soil creep

❖ Models conveniente to simulate the behaviour of soft soils which are very compressible
❖ Soft soil creep : useful for soft soils where secondary consolidation is very important
❖ Available in PLAXIS ®

➢ Hoek and Brown

❖ Model convenient for the simulation of rock masses

PROBLEM 2 – ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF A SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• The force-displacement diagram of a footing, subject to a

vertical, centrally applied load that is gradually increased,
begins with a linear, steep branch, which corresponds to the
elastic response of the foundation soil

• Next comes a zone of increasing curvature that signals the

initiation of the shearing failure of the foundation soil, at
first in a limited zone but which keeps growing in size

• The theoretical failure or ultimate load, Qult , corresponds to

the intersection of the lines tangent to the two
approximately linear branches

𝑸𝒖𝒍𝒕
• The bearing capacity is given by 𝒒𝒖𝒍𝒕 =
𝑩𝑳

• The slope and the extension of the final branch depend on

several factors, in particular the soil type

 Elastic deformation  Start of yielding

 Partial yielding  Failure

From Manuel Matos Fernandes – Geotechnical Engineering

PROBLEM 2 – ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF A SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• In compact granular soils and in clayey soils loaded in undrained conditions, the final
branch is short and practically vertical, failure occurring suddenly and with heave of
the foundation surrounding soil

• In loose soils and in clayey soils loaded in drained conditions, the final branch is
quite inclined and at an angle with the vertical, with the occurrence of significant
settlement without general soil failure, due to the fact that the soil strength keeps
increasing with settlement, failure being thereby progressively postponed

From Manuel Matos Fernandes – Geotechnical Engineering

PROBLEM 2 – ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF A SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• The shearing failure of the

soil implies the formation
of three plastic zones
• Wedge I, which descends
jointly with the footing, is
in Rankine limit state and
obliges wedge II, in radial
shear, to move sideways
and induce in wedge III a
lateral, upwards
displacement in passive
Rankine state

• In wedge I the angle y is p/4+f/2, while in wedge III the angle y’ is p/4-f/2

• The straight line segments AC and DE are connected by a curve, which is

circular for soils with f=0 and a log spiral in the other cases

From Manuel Matos Fernandes – Geotechnical Engineering

PROBLEM 2 – ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF A SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Displacement vectors

From Manuel Matos Fernandes – Geotechnical Engineering

PROBLEM 2 – ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF A SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Effective plastic strain

From Manuel Matos Fernandes – Geotechnical Engineering

PROBLEM 2 – ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF A SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Total displacement field

From Manuel Matos Fernandes – Geotechnical Engineering

PROBLEM 2 – ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF A SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• In an effective stress analysis, the general expression for load bearing capacity is
written as
𝟏
𝒒𝒖𝒍𝒕 = 𝒄′𝑵𝒄 + 𝒒′𝑵𝒒 + 𝑩𝜸𝑵𝜸
𝟐
• In this expression:
• 𝒄′ is the cohesion in terms of effective stress
• 𝑵𝒄 , 𝑵𝒒 and 𝑵𝜸 are functions of 𝝓′
• 𝒒′ represents 𝜎𝑣′ at the level of the footing base
• 𝜸 should be replaced by 𝜸’ in case the water level is at or above the base of the
footing,
while in other cases an intermediate value between 𝜸 and 𝜸’ should be
estimated using the Meyerhof plot

• In a total stress analysis (𝝓′ = 𝟎), the expression becomes

𝒒𝒖𝒍𝒕 = 𝒄𝒖 𝑵𝒄 + 𝒒, with 𝑵𝒄 = 𝝅 + 𝟐

From Manuel Matos Fernandes – Geotechnical Engineering