Environmental architecture

1. Environmental architecture
2. Climate and building design
o Climatic parameters
o Climates in The East African community
3. Climate responsive design
o Site planning
o Natural ventilation
o Day Lighting
o Building shape
o Thermal insulation
o Roof
o Shading
1. ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE

Sustainable architecture, is the architecture which aims to achieve the maximum comfort with
the minimum primary energy consumption. Factors such as climate, master plan, building shape,
façade design, the thermo-physical characteristics of the materials, and finally the building plan,
must play a role in decisions.
To achieve this goal, a high level of integration among the skills called into play in the design
process is required. The design process, nowadays, is based on a linear path, in three steps:
architectural design, followed by design of the mechanical systems (when the building is
equipped with an air conditioning system), and then construction The architect – because of his
training – usually knows little or nothing about building physics; consequently architectural
choices very often have a negative impact on the building’s energy performance, and on the
occupants’ comfort.
This approach is incompatible with the design of low energy, high comfort buildings. It is
necessary to change the design methodology, and make use of an integrated design model that
includes, inter alia, the introduction of new professional expertise: the energy expert.

The energy expert must have an in-depth knowledge of building physics; he must be able to
interact with the architect and with the mechanical engineer; he must not only be capable of
managing rules of thumb, but he must also be able to use sophisticated simulation tools for
evaluating the energy performance of the building, thermal comfort, daylighting, natural
ventilation and all the passive means of reducing energy demands. From these evaluations the
energy expert derives recommendations for the architect and the mechanical engineer who, in
turn, modify their design choices accordingly, proposing new solutions that have to be re-
evaluated. This circular process is repeated until a satisfactory solution is reached, taking into
account not only energy, but also aesthetics, functionality and economy.

SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN

It is also essential that these skills are integrated from the earliest stages of the process. Indeed,
it is in these phases that most critical decisions are taken, greatly influencing the energy
performance of the building, the comfort of the occupants and construction costs.
Of course, the new process is more time consuming and expensive, but its higher cost is
outweighed not only by the lower energy bill and the greater comfort, but also by the lower
construction costs, compared with the cost of a building with the same energy performance but
designed through the usual design process; this is also because the unfortunately common
practice of oversizing a building’s components and HVAC (Heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) systems can be avoided.
It is not sufficient, however, that the new design process integrates new expertise, and that it
changes from linear to circular. It is also necessary to define a planning strategy which focuses
on creating a low energy, comfortable building that is not simply a “normal” building in which
renewable energy is used instead of oil or gas. It should be a building designed in a different way,
using a planning strategy that its maximum effort must go into minimizing the amount of energy
needed to provide high levels of thermal and visual comfort, by means of appropriate
architectural design.
Only after this has been done can the issue of maximizing the energy efficiency of mechanical
systems and their appropriate control be tackled. Eventually, if the process has been carried out
in the best possible way, the amount of primary energy needed will be very small and it will be
easily supplied from renewable sources: the higher the energy efficiency of the whole
building+HVAC system, the lower the size, and hence the cost, of the renewable energy
production system.
2. CLIMATE AND BUILDING DESIGN

2.1 CLIMATIC PARAMETERS

Weather is the state of the atmospheric environment over a brief period of time in a specific
place. Integrated weather conditions over several years are referred to as climate.
Different terms are used depending on the size of the geographical area considered. We refer to
macroclimate for a large territory, meso-climate for a medium-size area, local climate and
microclimate for a small area at the level of the individual or of a single confined space.
Local climate is generally related to an area ranging from a few square meters to a few hectares.
For example, it can apply to the side of a hill, a valley or a portion of the built area, and is
characterized by more or less marked changes in temperature, relative humidity, wind, sunshine,
etc., due to the particular nature of the topography, urban morphology, orientation, nature of
materials, proximity to water, presence or absence of vegetation, etc.
The main climatic parameters influencing the energy performance of a building are:
• solar radiation;
• air temperature;
• relative humidity;
• wind.
Solar radiation is the main driver of climate, since it influences temperature and gives rise to
regional winds.
The temperature at a given latitude depends on the angle of incidence of solar rays to the ground:
it is highest at the equator and lowest at the poles. The higher the angle of incidence (and thus
the lower the latitude) the more energy reaches the ground and the higher the air temperature.
Regional winds derive from the difference in air temperature (and thus pressure) between
northern and equatorial latitudes.

Solar geometry

The earth moves along an elliptical orbital trajectory around the sun in a little more than 365
days, and also rotates around its own axis, which is inclined by about 67° to the plane of the orbit.
It takes about 24 hours to perform a complete 360° revolution.
Seasonal climate change is the result of the different ways in which the sun’s rays hit the various
regions of the earth during the year. This is due to the inclination of the plane of the equator,
thus to the inclination of earth’s axis.
The tilt of earth’s axis with respect to the plane of the orbit is constant but the angle formed
between the line joining the centre of the earth with the centre of the sun and the equatorial
plane changes day by day, or, it is better to say, instant by instant. This angle is called the solar
declination δ, is equal to zero at the spring and autumn equinoxes, and is +23.45° at the summer
solstice and -23.45° at the winter solstice.
As a consequence of the earth’s movements around the sun, in the course of the year an observer
on earth perceives different solar paths, which are characterized by variable heights and lengths,
depending on time of year and latitude.

Solar declination angle

(a) Summer solstice; (b) Autumn equinox; (c) Winter solstice; (d) Spring equinox

Sun charts
The apparent position of the sun can be calculated at any place and time, using different
algorithms taking into account geographical, astronomical and time variables.
Solar altitude, represented by the angle β between the direction of the geometric center of the
sun’s apparent disk and the horizontal horizon plane, and the solar azimuth angle α, which is the
angle, measured on the horizontal plane, from the south to the projection of the line of sight to
the sun on the ground.

Designing with sun charts

Sun path diagrams are used to evaluate how the sun affects the design context. For instance,
once the sun’s position (that corresponds to a point on the chart) at a given monthly average day
and hour has been found, it is possible to draw an imaginary line, ideally representing the sun’s
rays, from this point to the building. In this way one can predict which part of the building will
receive direct solar radiation at that time and at which angle.
Example. Sunpath diagram for Kampala

How to read a sunpath diagram

1. Locate the required hour line on the diagram.
2. Locate the required date line, remembering that solid are used for Jan-June and dotted lines
for July-Dec.
3. Find the intersection point of the hour and date lines. Remember to intersect solid with solid
and dotted with dotted lines.
4. Draw a line from the very center of the diagram, through the intersection point, out to the
perimeter of the diagram.
5. Read the azimuth as an angle taken clockwise from north. In this case, the value is about 62°.
6. Trace a concentric circle around from the intersection point to the vertical north axis, on
which is displayed the altitude angles.
7. Interpolate between the concentric circle lines to find the altitude. In this case the
intersection point sits exactly on the 30° line.
8. This gives the position of the sun, fully defined as an azimuth and altitude.
Solar radiation

The sun emits electromagnetic waves characterized by wavelengths of between 0.1 nm and 10
km, which include, among others, the ultraviolet, visible and infrared bandwidths.
The average power density of solar radiation on a perpendicular surface outside the earth’s
atmosphere is about 1370 W/m2. On the earth’s surface, however, the maximum value rarely
exceeds 1100 W/m2, because of the filter effect due to the atmospheric components (gas,
vapour, dust), which absorb and scatter part of the energy.

The attenuation of the radiation penetrating the atmosphere depends on the thickness it crosses.
When the sun is low on the horizon, the ray’s path through the atmosphere is longer and the
radiation undergoes a higher attenuation, and vice versa when the sun is high in the sky.
The attenuation of the radiation is due to the absorption and the scattering caused by the
components of the atmosphere (oxygen, ozone, nitrogen and nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide,
water vapour, aerosol, etc.).
Both phenomena modify the solar spectrum; absorption because it is selective (i.e. it takes place
only for certain wavelengths); scattering because the ratio of the energy scattered in all
directions (and thus also back towards space) to that transmitted varies as a function of
wavelength and of the characteristics of the medium crossed. The quota of radiation that reaches
the earth’s surface after the scattering process is called diffuse radiation, while the radiation that
comes directly from the sun and penetrates the atmosphere is called direct radiation.
Diffuse radiation is a significant part of the radiation flux incident on a horizontal surface. On a
clear day, when the sun is low on the horizon, the share of diffuse radiation can be up to 50%.
On a cloudy day scattered radiation represents the total solar energy available at ground level.

Solar radiation on a surface

When calculating the solar radiation incident on a surface, one can refer to two parameters,
irradiance and irradiation. Irradiance is the instantaneous solar power incident on the surface; it
varies instant by instant and is measured in W/m2. Irradiation is the cumulative energy captured
from the surface in a given period (day, month, year) and is measured in kWh/m2.

Different methods can be applied to calculate the two parameters, using mathematical
algorithms or deriving values from databases. For example the values referring to a clear day may
be derived from calculations that take into account the latitude, the day and the thickness of the
atmosphere passed through hour by hour. It should be noted, however, that not every day is
clear and therefore, for evaluations of long periods, it is convenient to refer to average data,
which take into account all the weather conditions that may occur during the period under
consideration. These data may refer to the mean monthly days or to the typical reference day,
whichever one is included in the typical reference year.
Any oriented and inclined surface on the earth receives global solar radiation, which is the sum
of three components: direct, diffuse and reflected from the ground or the surrounding surfaces.
It has to be noted that in the case of a horizontal surface, which does not “see” the ground, the
reflected component is zero.
Global irradiation can range from a few dozen watts per square metre (at sunrise, sunset, or
when the sky is overcast) to over a thousand (at noon or when the sky is clear), while the value
and the ratio of the three components are highly variable and depend on specific location, time,
weather conditions and context.
In general, global irradiation increases from dawn until noon and then decreases until sunset, but
its values are greatly affected by cloud cover and possible shading obstructions.
Direct irradiation, which comes straight from the sun, is influenced by the spatial disposition of
the surface: the more perpendicularly the rays strike it, the higher the amount of energy incident
on it.
Diffuse irradiation also depends on the spatial disposition of the surface, and more precisely on
how this “sees” the sky dome. Since we can assume that the diffuse component comes from all
directions of the atmosphere, the greater the portion of sky seen from the surface, the greater
the collected diffuse irradiation.
Reflected irradiation depends on the mutual spatial disposition of the absorbing and the
reflective surface, on the incident radiation onto the reflecting surface and on the albedo of the
reflecting surface. The albedo is the fraction of the total radiation that is reflected from the
irradiated surface and characterizes the reflective properties of a surface, of an object or of an
entire system.
Thus we speak of the albedo of desert, steppe, forest, glacier, clouds, atmosphere, sea, of a
continent or of the Planet as a whole.
The local albedo is a fairly stable function of solar height and varies considerably in relation to
the colour, texture and moisture of the surface. The values are lowest in the case of ploughed
and humid soil, and higher with light-coloured sand. By decreasing the compactness of the soil
or increasing its moisture content, the albedo substantially decreases.

Air temperature

Air temperature is greatly influenced by context, depending primarily on geographical factors

(latitude and hydrography), topography (altitude and topography), surface textures (composition
and colour of the soil) and location (urban or rural ), as well as solar radiation and wind, which,
through hot or cold airstreams, can cause more or less significant variations, which can be
permanent or temporary.
Temperature is subject to cyclical variations during the day and throughout the year, following
periodic oscillations, with maxima and minima delayed in relation to peak sunshine. In the course
of the day, air temperature reaches its minimum value just before dawn, then increases until it
reaches its maximum value in the early afternoon, and then begins to decrease slowly).
The daily temperature range is very important because it allows us to predict the effect of
thermal inertia on comfort and energy consumption.
Temperature data are available in different forms: maximum and minimum annual, monthly and
daily averages, or as a frequency distribution of hourly values, etc. For the purposes of evaluation
of the climatic context, the values most commonly used are the monthly average daily
temperature, and the difference between the mean maximum and minimum.
Close to ground level when wind speed is low, local temperatures are mainly influenced by
topographic, orographic, surface, and location factors.

Topographical factors
Height above sea level is one of the most significant topographical factors. Temperature variation
due to altitude takes place in relation to the temperature itself, air pressure and absolute
humidity. Usually, for rough evaluations, it can be considered that air temperature decreases
with altitude by about 0.5 °C/100 m.
Topography also has an impact on air temperature. On clear, calm nights the ground cools down
due to the infrared radiation towards the sky dome, and a layer of cold air in contact with the
surface is generated. On a slope, the layer of cold air flows down and collects in hollows in the
ground or in depressions. In this way socalled cold air lakes are formed.
According to this phenomenon, a valley carved in a plateau should contain a deep cold air lake.
This, however, does not happen because of the large size of the valley, which allows a certain
amount of air circulation between the coldest area along the slope and the warmest above.
The cold air lake, for this reason, is formed only at the bottom of valley.
The maximum height of cold air lakes depends on the width of the valleys:
• narrow valleys: 3 m;
• average valleys: 8 m;
• wide valleys: 30 − 75 m.

Location
Since air temperature depends significantly on that of the ground or surrounding context, areas
of urbanized land have – because of the their morphological configuration and the characteristics
of the materials they are made of - a greater capacity to absorb solar radiation; to this has to be
added the heat generated due to the heating and cooling of buildings and vehicular traffic. For
these reasons, temperatures in urban areas are higher by a few degrees than in their rural
surroundings. This phenomenon, called the urban heat island, increases with the size of the city
and towards its center (which generally has higher building density).
In other words, the urban heat island occurs because the materials and morphology
characterizing the urban context act as a heat trap. The heat island effect in warm to hot climates
exacerbates the amount of energy used for cooling, but this can be reduced by using materials
with high reflection coefficients, as well as by applying sunscreens (e.g. vegetation) in the most
critical areas.

Relative humidity
Relative humidity expresses the ratio of the quantity of water vapor actually contained in the air,
to the maximum amount that can be contained before condensation occurs. It is normally
expressed as a percentage.
Relative humidity is subject to cyclical fluctuations; it generally increases during the night and
during the cold season, when air temperature is at its lowest, and decreases as air temperature
rises.
At local level, relative humidity can be affected by various factors, such as vegetation, distance
from water bodies and solar exposure.
The presence of vegetation, in particular, due to evapotranspiration, generally increases the
relative humidity, so that values recorded in urban areas are typically lower than 5 - 10%
compared to those recorded in rural areas.
Humidity generally increases in proximity to seas, lakes and rivers, due to evaporation.
On a shaded slope or in a valley bottom relative humidity is generally higher than elsewhere,
because of the lower temperature.
Relative humidity and temperature follow an opposite trend during a clear day: when the
temperature reaches its maximum, humidity reaches its minimum, and vice versa.
This is due to the fact that the amount of water vapour in the air (grams of water per kilogram of
dry air) is almost constant.

Wind
Wind is the movement of air masses caused by differences in atmospheric pressure related to
land, water and air temperature gradients, which may occur at a macro-territorial level (between
one geographical region and another) or on a local scale (waterfront, lakeside area, valleys, etc.).
In the first case we refer to regional winds, in the second to local winds.
The parameters which characterize wind are: speed, direction from which it flows and frequency.
A schematic representation of the three parameters is given by the wind rose. Presented in a
circular format, the wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from particular directions.
The length of each “spoke” around the circle is related to the frequency with which the wind
blows from a particular direction in a given period of time (month, season, year). Each concentric
circle represents a different frequency, ranging from zero at the centre to increasing frequencies
at the outer circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke can
be broken down into colour-coded bands that show wind speed ranges. The most useful values
are the averages over a long period of time.

Regional winds
The effect of topography on regional winds is remarkable and can be quantitatively assessed. On
flat ground, without obstructions, wind speed varies as a function of two parameters: surface
roughness of the ground and height.
It may be noted that - at the same height – velocity is greater in open countryside than in an area
of high building density. Wind is measured by weather stations, situated in a given topographical
context. Changing this context also changes the speed, which also changes, in the same site, in
relation to the height.
Usually, wind data available for a location are those measured at the nearest airport, at a height
of 10 m from the ground.
Local winds
A combination of contrasting thermal environments results in the development of horizontal
pressure gradients that, in the absence of regional winds, cause air movements, and thus local
winds.
In some cases, such as breezes overseas and lakes and in mountain valleys in summer, these
movements can be predicted.
The soil-water temperature difference and its inversion during 24 hours (in daytime soil is hotter
than water, but it is colder at night) produce a corresponding pressure difference of the air above
the water and the ground. This difference, in turn, causes an air flow across the coastline. The
breeze reverses direction from day to night, and vice
Versa.
In a valley, air movement is more complex. In general the prediction of local air movements on
the basis of a few parameters is very difficult, because of the large number of variables involved.
Wind speed and direction also undergo variations on a smaller scale: buildings or rows of trees
change, sometimes significantly, the characteristics of the local wind.
2.2 CLIMATES IN THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY

The first, comprehensive, climate classification system was developed by Wladimir Köppen in
1884.It is based on the concept that native vegetation is the best expression of climate. Thus,
climate zone boundaries were selected with vegetation distribution in mind.
Existing classifications of the climatic zones of EAC countries are based on the same concept.
Buildings, to be low energy and sustainable, must be climate responsive, i.e. their features must
be climate dependent. This dependence, however, is different from the kind of dependence
shown by vegetation.
Both, buildings and vegetation, are best suited to the environment according to climatic
parameters such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind (for vegetation
precipitation has to be added), but they react differently to the same climatic input.
For this reason, the climate classification developed for design matters is based on a building’s
response to climate and not on the response of vegetation.

The combination of these three methods led to the development of a map of climate zones based
on the effect of the climatic context on building design strategies. On this basis, six homogeneous
climatic zones were defined, each characterized by a set of strategies that should be adopted to
minimize energy consumption and maximize thermal comfort.
Within each zone, some of the strategies may be more or less critical, in relation to the specific
local climate.
So, for some climate zones, if in general a medium-high thermal inertia of the wall is
recommended, the thickness of the wall should be calibrated on the basis of climatic data specific
to the location. Also, the same strategy can provide higher or lower thermal comfort, in relation
to the more or less severe external environmental conditions of the specific place. It should be
noted that the deviation from comfort conditions in the absence of air conditioning is an indicator
of the potential energy consumption when air conditioning is used.
The EAC can be divided into the following six bioclimatic zones for energy efficient building
design:

Zone I: Hot-humid
Zone II: Hot-arid
Zone III: Hot-semi arid/savannah
Zone IV: Great lakes
Zone V: Upland
Zone VI: High upland
Zone I: Hot-humid

This zone includes the coastal areas, islands and a strip of land from 20 to 100 km wide along the
coast. Most of the zone is less than 300 m above sea level. It is never excessively hot, but has
high humidity, which causes discomfort. The zone is characterized by permanent high humidity,
generally high temperatures, small daily temperature swing, moderate breezes and high values
of solar radiation, except on cloudy days. Along the coast and up to 2-8 km inland, depending on
the terrain the prevailing north-east and south-east monsoon winds are modified by sea-land
breezes during the day and, to a much lesser extent, by land-sea breezes at night.
In the hottest month, the mean maximum air temperature is about 32 °C, the mean minimum air
temperature is 25- 26 °C, and the mean temperature swing is about 3-7 °C.
The mean relative humidity along the coastal area is about 80%, and for the strip of land from
20-100 km along the coast, the mean relative humidity is 65%-72%. A more comfortable season
is experienced between June and September due to a small temperature drop together with a
lower humidity level and relatively higher wind velocity.
Global solar radiation over a horizontal surface is 5.0- 5.4 kWh/m2 day and progressively lowers
to 4.5 kWh/m2 moving away from the coastline. The monsoons blow from the northeast from
November to March and from the southeast from April to September.

The average annual precipitation is 900-1250 mm.

Some of the representative locations for this zone are: Mombasa, Malindi (Kenya), Dar es Salaam
and Tanga (Tanzania).

Comfort
The combination of high temperatures and high humidity causes discomfort. Ventilation that
facilitates convective and evaporative cooling of the body is essential for comfort by both day
and night.
Nights, which are often still and sultry, bring little or no relief to the heat of the day. Even correctly
designed lightweight houses will release heat, very often causing an indoor temperature higher
than that of outdoors.
Therefore, minimizing discomfort at night is of utmost importance.
The period from June to September is less critical.
A high incidence of glare can be expected from bright overcast skies.

Zone II: Hot-arid

The hot-arid zone includes the areas that are far from the sea, with altitudes ranging from 0 m to
500 m.
Maximum temperatures are high, higher than those of the hot-humid climate and the daily
temperature variation is also high. Humidity, especially in the hottest hours, is low. Breezes are
generally light with no strong predominant direction.
The wet and dry seasons correspond to the wet and dry seasons on the coast at the same latitude,
and both these seasons are much drier.
For the hottest month, the mean maximum air temperature is about 36 °C, the mean minimum
air temperature is 23 °C, the mean temperature swing is about 12 °C, mean relative humidity is
about 40%, and global solar radiation over a horizontal surface is about 7.0 kWh/m2 day.

The average annual rainfall is 0-500 mm.

Some of the representative locations for this zone are: Garissa and Lodwar (Kenya).

Comfort
Days are invariably very hot. The high daytime temperatures are accompanied by moderate to
low humidity such that even a gentle breeze will usually be sufficient to prevent skin surfaces
from becoming moist.
Low humidity in the hottest hours attenuates the level of discomfort and a wider daily
temperature swing means that nights are relatively comfortable. Winds are generally weak, and
persistent, at times strong winds are experienced locally. Sudden severe and violent windstorms
accompanied by thick rising sand occur from time to time in some parts of the zone (e.g. Lake
Turkana). Fresh breezes from mid to late evening are common in some places (e.g. Garissa).
Heat during the day imposes severe restrictions on people’s outdoor activities. Houses should
aim at keeping indoor temperatures low during hot days, and should be provided with shaded
outdoor areas where occupants can carry out various activities. Very often people like to rest and
sleep inside during these hot hours.

Zone III: Hot-semi arid / Savannah

This zone covers the widest area of the EAC, and includes some parts of Kenya and a large part
of Tanzania and Uganda, with altitudes ranging from 500 m to 1500 m. The difference between
this zone and the hot-arid zone is that it has relatively higher humidity values, lower peak
temperatures and smaller daily temperature swings.

The mean air temperature range is 20-22 °C. In summer the temperatures are about 29-31 °C and
can rise to 33 °C in semi arid areas. Mean relative humidity is about 65%, but it can go as low as
40% in parts of the savannah plains. Global solar radiation over a horizontal surface is about 6.3
kWh/m2 day.

The mean annual rainfall varies according to topography and ranges from 500 mm-750 mm in
semi arid areas to 1000-1500 mm in savannah regions.

Some of the representative locations for this zone are: Machakos, Isiolo, Mavoko, Thika (Kenya),
Tabora, Dodoma (Tanzania), Gulu, Kabale, Iganga, Kasese, Lira (Uganda).

Comfort
The comfort conditions are similar to those in the hot-arid climate zone.
The discomfort caused by the high daytime temperatures that prevail during most of the year
can be critical, though steady breezes often alleviate the heat of the afternoon. It can be chilly
during the cloudy months of July and August and during and immediately after rains.
Mosquitoes are troublesome in some of the small townships, particularly where stagnant water
abounds.
Comfort conditions at night vary considerably over the year. It is often likely to be uncomfortably
warm inside massive walls and poorly ventilated houses. From June to August and during the
rainy season it can, however, be distinctly cool at night.

Zone IV: Great Lakes

This zone includes a strip 0-25 km wide along the shores of Lakes Victoria, Nyasa, Rukwa and
Tanganyika. The zone ranges in average from lake level to about 150 m above lake level.
The temperature is slightly lower than that in the savannah zones, but daily variations are
comparable.
Due to the lakes, humidity is higher than in the savannah zone, even though it is in the same
altitude range.
In the hottest month, the mean maximum air temperature is about 28-29 °C, the mean minimum
air temperature is 16-17 °C, the mean temperature swing is about 12 °C, the mean relative
humidity is about 60- 70%, and global solar radiation over a horizontal surface is about 5.5
kWh/m2 day.

The average annual precipitation is more than 1200 mm.

Some of the representative locations for this zone are: Kisumu, Homabay, Kakamega (Kenya),
Bukoba, Mwanza (Tanzania), Kampala, Hoima, Jinja (Uganda), Kibuye, Gisenye (Rwanda),
Bujumbura (Burundi).

Comfort
This is a remarkably stable climate. There are very slight seasonal and daily differences in
temperature and humidity.
Day temperatures are rather similar to those in the the hothumid Coastal Zone, but nights may
be uncomfortably cold for some periods of the year. The hot and comparatively humid climate
of this zone is considerably modified by the zone’s altitude, from 475 m (Lake Nyasa) to 1133 m
(Lake Victoria). Due to the high altitude of Lake Victoria, early mornings may be uncomfortably
cold during the cold season and the rains. Therefore, complete sun exclusion is not desirable in
this area, whereas in other parts of the zone sun exclusion is required. Shaded outdoor spaces
facing the lake in order to catch the cooling afternoon breeze are highly appreciated.
During chilly and rainy mornings, the heat from a fire is most desirable.

Zone V: Upland
This zone refers to areas at altitudes between about 1500 and 2000 m, mainly mountains and
plateaus. They are generally cool areas where some heating is welcome on the coolest days of
the year. High relative humidity is rare during the day, but is the norm at night. Breezes are
moderate with no predominant direction.
For the hottest month, the mean maximum air temperature is about 26-27 °C, the mean
minimum air temperature is 14-16 °C, the mean temperature swing is about 10-12 °C, mean
relative humidity is about 60-65%, and global solar radiation on horizontal surface about 6-7
kWh/m2 day.
For the coldest month, the mean maximum air temperature is about 20-24 °C, the mean
minimum air temperature is 14-15 °C, the mean temperature swing is about 6-10 °C, mean
relative humidity is about 60- 75%, and global solar radiation over a horizontal surface is about
5-6 kWh/m2 day. The heating degree-days are about 25-370 (base 18 °C).

The average annual precipitation is more than1200 mm.

Some of the representative locations for this zone are:

Nairobi, Kitale, Nakuru (Kenya), Arusha, Mbeya, Iringa (Tanzania), Mbale (Uganda), Kigali
(Rwanda).

Comfort
The upland zone has a pleasant climate. Because of the high altitude, the conditions in this zone
are similar to spring or autumn in a temperate climate. Temperatures are moderate and during
daytime rarely exceed the upper limits of the comfort zones. During nighttime, the temperature
is likely to drop below the lower limit of the comfort zone.
The low night temperatures are a major source of discomfort.

Zone VI: High Upland

This zone refers to altitudes above 2000m. These are generally cold areas where heating is
necessary for most of the year. The humidity is fairly high. For the coldest month, the mean
maximum air temperature is about 20 °C, the mean minimum air temperature is 12 °C, the mean
temperature swing is about 8 °C, mean relative humidity is about 80%, and global solar radiation
over a horizontal surface is about 5.3 kWh/m2 day.

The average annual precipitation is more than 1200 mm.

One of the representative locations for this zone is Eldoret (Kenya).

Comfort
Due to the altitude, daytime temperatures are never high, but nights are very cold. During most
nights, temperatures are well below the comfort zone, and a rapid temperature drop takes place
at sunset.
The zone contains a large number of exposed localities with brisk winds and good air movement,
which in cold weather may be uncomfortable. However, high wind velocities are uncommon.
The frequent cold and rainy weather makes people stay indoors close to the fire.