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Chapter 7. Digital Communication Techniques 3. The telephone system, the largest and most
o Digital Transmission of Data widely used communication system, has been
o Parallel and Serial Transmission converting from analog to digital over the
o Data Conversion years.
o Pulse Modulation Proliferation of Computers
o Digital Signal Processing - Some common examples of computer data
Different Communication Systems communication include:
o File transfer
o Electronic mail (e-mail)
o Computer-peripheral links
o Internet access
o Local area networks (LANs)
Noncomputer Uses of Digital Communication
- Among the non-computer applications of digital
techniques:
o TV remote control
o Garage door opener
o Carrier current controls
o Radio control of models
o Remote keyless entry
Benefits of Digital Communication
- Noise Immunity: Digital signals, which are
usually binary, are more immune to noise than
analog signals.
- Error Detection and Correction: With digital
communication, transmission errors can usually
be detected and corrected.
- Compatibility with Time-Division
Multiplexing: Digital data communication is
adaptable to time division multiplexing schemes.
7-1: Digital Transmission of Data Multiplexing is the process of transmitting two or
- Since the mid-1970s, digital methods of more signals simultaneously on a single channel.
transmitting data have slowly replaced analog.
- Radio communication has remained primarily
analog because the type of information to be
conveyed is analog and because of the high
frequencies involved.
- Today, digital circuits are fast enough to handle
the processing of radio signals.
- Digital processing is more cost-effective and
practical.
- Data refers to information to be communicated.
- Data is in digital form if it comes from a - Digital ICs: Digital ICs are smaller and easier to
computer. make than linear ICs, so therefore can be more
- If analog (e.g. voice), it can be converted into complex and provide greater processing
digital form before it is transmitted. capability.
- Digital communication was initially limited to the - Digital Signal Processing (DSP): DSP is the
transmission of data between computers. processing of analog signals by digital methods.
- Networks (e.g. local area networks or LANs) are This involves converting an analog signal to
formed to support communication between digital and then processing with a fast digital
computers. computer. Processing means filtering,
- There are three primary reasons for the growth of equalization, phase shifting, mixing, and other
digital communication systems: traditionally analog methods.
1. Increased use of computers has made it Disadvantages of Digital Communication
necessary to find a way for computers to - Considerable bandwidth size is required by a
communicate and exchange data. digital signal
2. Digital transmission methods offer some - Digital communication circuits are usually more
major benefits over analog communication complex than analog circuits.
techniques. 7-2: Parallel and Serial Transmission
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- There are two ways to move binary bits from one - The serial data word is transmitted over the
place to another: communication link and is received by another
1. Transmit all bits of a word simultaneously shift register.
(parallel transfer). - Serial data can typically be transmitted faster over
2. Send only 1 bit at a time (serial transfer). longer distances than parallel data.
Parallel Transfer - Serial buses are now replacing parallel buses in
- Parallel data transmission is extremely fast computers, storage systems, and
because all the bits of the data word are telecommunication equipment where very high
transferred simultaneously. speeds are required.
- Parallel data transmission is impractical for - Serial-to-parallel and parallel-to-serial data
longdistance communication because of: conversion circuits are also referred to as
o cost. serializer-deserializers (serdes).
o signal attenuation.

Figure 7-4: Parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel data

Figure 7-2: Parallel data transmission transfers with shift registers.
Serial Transfer Delta Modulation
- Data transfers in communication systems are - is a special form of A/D conversion that results in
made serially; each bit of a word is transmitted a continuous serial data signal being transmitted.
one after another. - The delta modulator looks at a sample of the
- The least significant bit (LSB) is transmitted analog input signal, compares it to a previous
first, and the most significant bit (MSB) last. sample, and then transmits a 0 or a 1 if the sample
- Each bit is transmitted for a fixed interval of time is less than or more than the previous sample.
t. 7-3: Data Conversion
- The key to digital communication is to convert
data in analog form into digital form.
- Once in digital form, the data can be processed or
stored.
- Data must usually be reconverted to analog form
for final consumption by the user.
Basic Principles of Data Conversion
Serial-Parallel Conversion - Translating an analog signal into a digital signal is
- Because both parallel and serial transmission called analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion,
occur in computers and other equipment, there digitizing a signal, or encoding.
must be techniques for converting between o The device used to perform this
parallel and serial and vice versa. translation is known as an analog-to-
- Such data conversions are usually taken care of digital converter or ADC.
by shift registers, sequential logic circuits made - Translating a digital signal into an analog signal is
up of a number of flip-flops connected in cascade. called digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion.
- The flip-flops in a shift register can store a o The circuit used to perform this is called a
multibit binary word, usually loaded in parallel digital-to-analog (D/A) converter or
into the transmitting register. DAC or a decoder.
- When a clock pulse (CP) is applied to the flip- A/D Conversion
flops, the bits of the word are shifted from one - An analog signal is a smooth or continuous
flip-flop to another in sequence. voltage or current variation.
- The last (right-hand) flip-flop in the transmitting - Through A/D conversion these continuously
register stores each bit in sequence as it is shifted variable signals are changed into a series of
out. binary numbers.
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- A/D conversion is a process of sampling or range is from 0 to 6 V. The minimum voltage step
measuring the analog signal at regular time increment then is 6/1023= 5.86 x 10-3 = 5.865 mV
intervals. D/A Conversion
- To retain the high-frequency information in the - To retain an analog signal converted to digital,
analog signal, a sufficient number of samples some form of binary memory must be used.
must be taken to adequately represent the - The multiple binary numbers representing each of
waveform. the samples can be stored in random access
- The minimum sampling frequency is twice the memory (RAM), on disk, or on magnetic tape.
highest analog frequency content of the signal. - The samples can then be processed and used as
- This minimum sampling frequency is known as data by a microcomputer which can perform
the Nyquist frequency. mathematical and logical manipulations.
- In practice the sampling rate is much higher - The D/A converter receives the binary numbers
(typically 2.5 to 3 times more) than the Nyquist sequentially and produces a proportional analog
minimum. voltage at the output.
Aliasing
- If the sampling frequency is not high enough,
aliasing occurs.
- Aliasing causes a new signal near the original to
be created.
- This signal has a frequency of fs− fm.
- When the sampled signal is converted back to
analog by a D/A converter, the output will be the
alias, not the original signal.
- To eliminate this problem, a low-pass filter called
an antialiasing filter is usually placed between the
modulating signal source and the A/D converter
input.
Figure 7-7: Sampling an analog signal - The antialiasing filter ensures that no signal with
- The analog signal represents an infinite number of a frequency greater than one-half the sampling
actual voltage values. frequency is passed.
- The A/D converter can represent only a finite - This filter must have extremely good selectivity.
number of voltage values over a specific range. D/A Converters
- The samples are converted to a binary number - There are many ways to convert digital codes to
whose value is close to the actual sample value. proportional analog voltages.
- An A/D converter divides a voltage range into - The most popular methods are
discrete increments, each of which is represented o R-2R
by a binary number.
o string
- The analog voltage measured during the sampling
o weighted current source converters.
process is assigned to the increment of voltage
closest to it. An R-2R converter consists of four major
- Errors associated with this process are known as sections:
quantizing errors. o Reference Regulator: The reference
voltage regulator, a zener diode, receives
the DC supply voltage as an input and
translates it into a highly precise
reference voltage.
o Resistor Networks: The voltage from the
reference is applied to this resistor
network, which converts it into a current
proportional to the binary input.
o Output Amplifiers: The output of the
resistive network is connected to the
summing junction of the op amp. The
output of the op amp is equal to the
output current of the resistor network
multiplied by the feedback resistor value.
The maximum amount of error can be computed by o Electronic Switches: The resistor
dividing the voltage range over which the A/D converter network is modified by a set of electronic
operates by the number of increments. Assume a 10-bit switches that can be either current or
A/D converter, with 10 bits, 210 =1024 voltage levels, or
1024-1 = 1023 increments. Assume that the input voltage
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voltage switches. They are usually - The output of the S/H amplifier is a fixed DC
implemented with diodes or transistors. level whose amplitude is the value at the sampling
String DAC time.
- The string DAC is made up of a series string of - The primary benefit of an S/H amplifier is that it
equalvalue resistors forming a voltage divider. stores the analog voltage during the sampling
- This voltage divider divides the input reference interval.
voltage into equal steps of voltage proportional to - In some high-frequency signals, the analog
the binary input. voltage may change during the sampling interval.
- The output voltage is determined by a set of o This is undesirable because it introduces
enhancement mode MOSFET switches controlled aperture error.
by a standard binary decoder. - The S/H amplifier stores the voltage on the
Weighted Current Source DAC capacitor. With the voltage constant during the
- A popular configuration for very high-speed sampling interval, quantizing is accurate.
DACs is the weighted current source DAC. Common ways to translate an analog voltage to a
- The current sources supply a fixed current that is binary number include:
determined by the external reference voltage. 1. Successive-Approximations Converters:
- Each current source supplies a binary weighted - This converter contains an 8-bit successive-
value of I, I/2, I/4, I/8, etc. approximations register (SAR).
- The current sources are made up of some - Special logic in the register causes each bit to be
combination of resistors, MOSFETs, or in some turned on one at a time from MSB to LSB until
cases bipolar transistors. the closest binary value is stored in the register.
- The switches are usually fast enhancement mode - The clock input signal sets the rate of turning the
MOSFETs, but bipolar transistors are used in bits off and on.
some models. - Successive-approximations converters are fast
- The parallel binary input is usually stored in an and consistent.
input register, and the register outputs turn the 2. Flash Converter:
switches off and on as dictated by the binary - A flash converter uses a large resistive voltage
value. divider and multiple analog comparators.
- The current source outputs are added at the - The number of comparators is equal to 2N – 1,
summing junction of an op amp. where N is the number of desired output bits.
- The output voltage Vo = It x Rf. - The flash converter produces an output as fast as
D/A Converter Specifications the comparators can switch and the signals can be
Three important specifications are associated with D/A translated to binary levels by the logic circuits.
converters: - Flash converters are the fastest type of A/D
- Resolution is the smallest increment of voltage converter.
that the D/A converter produces over its output - Flash A/D converters are complicated and
voltage range. expensive but are the best choice for high-speed
- Error is expressed as a percentage of the conversions
maximum, or full-scale, output voltage, which is 3. Pipelined Converters:
the reference voltage value. - A pipelined converter is one that uses two or
- Settling time is the amount of time it takes for the more lowresolution flash converters to achieve
output voltage of a D/A converter to stabilize to higher speed and higher resolution than
within a specific voltage range after a change in successive-approximations converters but less
binary input. than a full flash converter.
A/D Converters ADC Specifications
- A/D conversion begins with sampling, which is - The key ADC specifications are
carried out by a sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit. o Resolution is related to the number of
- The S/H circuit takes a precise measurement of bits. Resolution indicates the smallest
the analog voltage at specified intervals. input voltage recognized by the converter.
- The A/D converter then converts this It is the reference voltage VREF divided
instantaneous value of voltage and translates it to by 2N , where N is the number of output
a binary number. bits.
S/H Circuits o Dynamic range is a measure of the range
- A sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit, also called a of input voltages that can be converted.
track/store circuit, accepts the analog input o Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the ratio
signal and passes it through, unchanged, during of the actual input signal voltage to the
its sampling mode. total noise in the system.
- In the hold mode, the amplifier remembers or o Effective number of bits - Noise,
memorizes a particular voltage level at the instant harmonics, or spurious signals all add
of sampling.
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together and reduce the resolution of an 4. Pulse-code modulation (PCM) - The most
ADC widely used technique for digitizing information
o Spurious free dynamic range (SFDR) is signals for electronic data transmission
the ratio of the rms signal voltage to the - PCM signals are serial digital data.
voltage value of the highest “spur” - There are two ways to generate:
expressed in decibels. A spur is any 4.1 Use an S/H circuit and traditional
spurious or unwanted signal that may A/D converter to sample and convert
result from intermodulation distortion. the analog signal into a sequence of
- The analog signal is sampled by an S/H circuit. binary words, convert the parallel
- The sample is also applied to a comparator. binary words into serial form, and
- The other input to the comparator comes from a transmit the data serially.
D/A converter driven by an up-down counter. 4.2 Use a delta modulator.
- The counter counts up (increments) or down
(decrements) depending on the output state of the
comparator.
- The comparator output is also the serial data
signal representing the analog value.
Sigma-Delta Converter
- A variation of the delta converter is the sigma-
delta (Σ Δ) converter.
- It is also known as a delta-sigma or charge
balance converter.
- This circuit provides extreme precision, wide
dynamic range, and low noise.
- It is available with word output lengths of 18, 20,
22, and 24 bits.
- These converters are widely used in digital audio
applications (e.g. CD and MP3 players).
- The converter is what is known as an
oversampling converter.
- It uses a clock or sampling frequency that is many
times the minimum Nyquist rate required for
other types of converters.
- The oversampling techniques used in the sigma-
delta converter translate the noise to a higher
frequency that can be easily filtered out by a low-
pass filter.
- This technique also eliminates the problem of
aliasing.
7-4: Pulse Modulation
- Pulse modulation is the process of changing a
binary pulse signal to represent the information to
be transmitted.
- The primary benefits of transmitting information
by binary techniques are:
o Noise tolerance
o Ability to regenerate a degraded signal.
There are four basic forms of pulse modulation:
1. Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) - a series of
constant-width pulses whose amplitudes vary in
accordance with the analog signal.
2. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) - is binary in
amplitude (has only two levels). The information
signal varies the width or time duration of the
pulse
3. Pulse-position modulation (PPM) - the pulses
change position according to the amplitude of the
analog signal.
Of the four types of pulse modulation, PAM is the
simplest and least expensive to implement.