Physics Revision 2

Unit 6.
1 – Motion
Calculating Speed
Speed is defined as the distance moved per unit time, and hence, the equation for
speed is :
speed = distance
time
…and the other two forms of
the equation are :
s= d d d= s x t
t s x t t = d
s
Distance is measured in metres (m)
Time is measured in seconds (s)
Speed is measured in metres per seconds (m/s)
Example 1
If a school bus moves 1600 metres at an average speed of 12.5 m/s, how long did the
journey take ?
t = d = 1600 = 128 s
s 12.5
Look !! Since it’s time we’re calculating, the

answer must have units of seconds.
Example 2
An electron in orbit around an atom moves at a speed of 2500 km/s !

How far would it travel (in a straight line) if it moved at this speed for 1 minute ?
d = s x t = 2 500 000 x 60 = 1.5 x 108 m (Almost 4 times around the Earth !)
Look !! It’s safer to use all values in metres and

seconds (rather than km and minutes).
So, 2500 km/s = 2500 x 1000 = 2 500 000 m/s
www.bangor.ac.uk/GCSErevision 1
Calculating Acceleration
Another equation you’ll need is the one for acceleration.
Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity (or speed) per second :

a= v v
the equation are :
t a x t v = a x t
t = v
a
Info. ! Notice the triangle symbol () in front
of the “v”. It’s the Greek letter ‘delta’.
In this case it means ‘change in’.
Change in velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s)

Acceleration is measured in metres per second2 (m/s2)
Example 1
A cyclist increases her speed from 5m/s to 19m/s in 7 seconds.
What is her acceleration?
a= v = ( 19 – 5 ) = 14 = 2 m/s2
t 7 7
Example 2
An oil tanker can decelerate at a maximum rate of 0.04 m/s2. How long will the tanker take
to come to a complete stop if initially travelling at a speed of 12 m/s ?
t= v = ( 12 ) = 300 s ( A full 5 minutes !)

a 0.04
Example 3
A football moving forwards at a speed of 12.4 m/s, is kicked forwards so that its speed
increases. The acceleration of the ball is 48.0 m/s2, which lasts for 0.45 s. What’s the final
speed of the ball after this acceleration ?
Change in speed,  v = a x t = 48.0 x 0.45 = 21.6 m/s
So, final speed = 12.4 + 21.6 = 34.0 m/s
Motion graphs
The motion of an object can be shown on one of two types of graphs : distance-time
or velocity-time graphs (sometimes called speed-time graphs).
Distance – time graphs
There’s ONE rule for a d-t graph :
The ‘steepness’ (or more correctly ‘slope’ or ‘gradient’)

of this graph indicates the speed of the object.
So, a STEEP line  a high speed

a less steep line  a lower speed
a flat/horizontal line  not moving
From B to C, the This is a straight,

In the 1st section, object is staying at diagonal line like
the object is a distance of 60m, section AB, and so
moving an equal so is not moving at is moving at a
distance each all, i.e. stationary ‘constant speed’.
second. Hence, the
However, this is not
object is moving at
as steep, so is
a ‘constant speed’.
moving slower than
AB. EF is again
stationary.
d (m)
E F
100 X X
80 D
B C X
60 X X
40
20
AX t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
This section is more difficult – since the slope is increasing,

the speed is increasing, i.e. the object is accelerating !
Motion graphs
Velocity – time graphs (or ‘speed-time’ graphs)
There are TWO rules for a v-t graph :
1. The slope/gradient is equal to the acceleration.
2. The area under the graph is equal to the distance

travelled.
In the 1st section, From C to D, the gradient is

the object is zero, and so, from rule 1
speeding up steadily Curved line shows
non-constant above, the acceleration is
since the gradient is zero. This means the object
constant (straight acceleration.
Gradient/steepness is staying at the same speed
line), i.e. it has (8 m/s), i.e. constant
constant increasing, so
acceleration is velocity
acceleration
increasing. This is a straight,
v (m/s) diagonal line like
section AB, but
10 sloping downwards
with a constant
8 CX XD gradient – the
object has constant
6 deceleration
4
B
2 X
E
AX X t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The distance travelled in any section can be calculated from the area
below the line, in this case the area of the shaded triangle :
[Type a quote from the document or the summary of an interesting point. You can position the text box anywhere
inDistance = areaUse= the
the document. base x height
Drawing Tools= tab
2 to
x 8change
= 16the= formatting
8 metresof the pull quote text box.]
2 2 2
Calculating the average/mean acceleration in section BC :

a = v = 8–2 = 6 = 3 m/s2
t 2 2
NOTE : Calculating the average speed in a sloping section is easy !! Since only straight line sections
are used for this, it’s simply half way between the start and end speed for that section e.g. for
section DE, the average speed is 4 m/s (half way between 8 m/s and 0 m/s )
Motion graphs
The motion of an object can be shown on one of two types of graphs : distance-time
or velocity-time graphs (sometimes called speed-time graphs).
It’s important that you learn what the shape of each type of graph tells you about the
object’s motion :
Distance – time graphs Velocity – time graphs
Stationary v (m/s)
d (m)
(Not moving)
Constant speed
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
t (s) t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
d (m) Constant speed v (m/s) Constant

(forwards) acceleration
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
t (s) t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
d (m)
Constant speed – v (m/s)
back to start zero metres) Constant
deceleration
8 8
6 6 (still moving forwards !!)
4 4
2 2
t (s) t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Stopping distance & Car Safety
Many road accidents happen because people

often underestimate the distance needed to
slow a car until it stops – the stopping distance.
The stopping distance is in two distinct parts :
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
Thinking distance = the distance travelled whilst reacting to a situation

(before the driver applies the brakes)
Braking distance = the distance travelled whilst the brakes are applies
(car is slowing down)
Reaction time is closely linked to thinking distance as follows :
Thinking distance = speed x reaction time ( d = s x t )
So, although a person’s reaction time is not much affected by speed, the thinking
distance is – look at these calculations at two different speed, 20 m/s, and 40 m/s,
with a typical reaction time of 0.4 s,
@ 20 m/s Thinking distance = 20 x 0.4 = 8m
@ 40 m/s Thinking distance = 40 x 0.4 = 16m
So, thinking distance is directly proportional to the vehicle’s speed.
Braking distance also increases with the

vehicle’s speed. However, they’re not
proportional (see the blue line on the
graph  ). Braking distance
(In fact, doubling the vehicle’s speed

quadruples the braking distance, since the
speed is squared in the KE equation).
To find the overall stopping distance at a particular

speed, just add the thinking distance and the
braking distance values at that speed.
Unit 6.2 – Newton’s laws (Forces)
Forces
A force is a push or a pull acting on an object. There are many different types of
force, e.g. friction, air-resistance, weight , upthrust, but they are always measured
in newtons, or N.
Sir Isaac Newton came up with three laws of motion, all of

which describe the effect that forces have on things.
Before looking at these three laws, it’s necessary to

understand the term ‘resultant force’ first.
Resultant force
Usually, more than one force is acting on an object, like in the ‘tug-of-war’ below.
In order to work out the effect of these forces on the object, we need to
calculate what’s known as ‘resultant force’.
490N 450N
Remember that all forces have a direction, unless of course they’re zero.
If forces act in the same direction  add; if opposite  subtract.
In the above example, the resultant force , RF = 490 – 450 = 40N 
What’s the resultant force in the example below ?

39N
24N
63N
Answer : RF = 0 (zero) N, 39N + 24N = 63N  (then 63-63 = 0 )
Newton’s laws
Newton’s 1st law

A body will remain at rest or continue to move at a constant velocity unless
acted upon by an external (resultant) force.
In effect, this is like saying that if the forces are balanced, the object will remain
stationary or keep moving at a constant velocity.
In the example on the right the cyclist keeps a

steady forwards force by pushing on the 450N
pedals.
If the backward forces like air-resistance are 450N

equal to the forward force, the resultant force
is then zero, and so the cyclist will keep
moving at a constant speed.
This law also brings about the idea of ‘inertia’. Inertia is the resistance of any
object to any change in its motion (including a change in direction). In other words,
it is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at constant speed.
So, a large object with a lot of mass, e.g. a cruise ship, will be very difficult to
move, accelerate, decelerate, change its direction, etc. (because of its ‘inertia’).
Newton’s laws
Newton’s 2nd law

In situations where the mass is constant, Newton’s 2nd law can be simplified :
F =  (mv) = m v = m x a F = ma
t t
So, the acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force.

If the resultant force doubles, the acceleration doubles.
Where F = resultant force, m = mass, and a = acceleration
Mass & Weight

Mass is a measure of how much Weight is a measure of how large
‘matter’ or material an object has. the force of gravity is on an object.
It’s measured in kg. It is measured in N.
Clearly, mass and weight are not the same !!
Mass does NOT depend on the location of the object, i.e. consider a 1 litre
bottle of water – it has a mass of 1kg. If this bottle were taken to the
surface of Mars, its mass would still be 1kg (as long as no water is taken
out of the bottle !).
However, since there’s less gravity on Mars, the weight of the bottle is less on Mars
than here on Earth.
Since weight is a type of force, we can apply the force equation to calculate it :
F = m x a Am I weightless, or
massless; both or
W = m x g neither ??!
where W = weight = ‘force of gravity

m = mass
g = gravitational field strength / acceleration due to gravity
Here on the Earth’s surface the value of ‘g’ is 10 N/kg. You will have to learn this
equation, as it does not appear in the equation list at the start of the examination
paper !
W = m X 10
Newton’s laws
Example
Thrust = 75N
A water rocket of mass 2.5kg is launched from the surface of the Earth.
It produces a steady thrust of 75N. Calculate the acceleration at the start.
Weight of rocket , W = m x g = 2.5 x 10 = 25 N
So, resultant force on the rocket = 75 – 25 = 50N ()
acceleration, a = resultant force = 50 = 20 m/s2 Weight = ? N

mass 2.5
Newton’s 3rd law

In an interaction between 2 bodies, A and B, the force exerted by body A on
body B is equal and opposite to the force exerted by body B on body A.
No force can act alone.

Remember that the action/reaction pair of forces are always on different objects,
and so never ‘cancel’ out ! The racquet pushes the ball forwards with a
force of 450N. Therefore, by Newton’s 3rd law,
the ball pushes the racquet backwards with an
equal force.
Note : one force is on the racquet, the other on

450 N 450 N
the ball, so they don’t ‘cancel’.
The effect of these two resultant forces is that both objects accelerate in opposite
directions. It may be easier to draw a free body diagram – a diagram that shows the
forces acting on any ONE object at a time :
Here’s the free body diagram for Here’s the free body diagram for
the tennis ball : the racquet :
450 N 450 N
Note : Other forces like gravity and air-resistance have not been shown on these diagrams !
Applying Newton’s laws
Examination questions on forces often deal with the idea of ‘terminal velocity’.
This idea involves a situation whereby, initially, the forces may be unbalanced (so
Newton’s 2nd law is used) but later become balanced ( Newton’s 1st law).
A
I’ve just jumped out of Air-resistance is zero, and so
the helicopter, and so I’m
Newton’s 2nd law states that
hardly moving.
the skydiver will accelerate
downwards.
B 600 N
350 N As the speed increases, so does

I’m now falling much
the air-resistance. (The weight
faster – I can feel the air
remains constant).Newton’s 2nd
rushing past.
law states that the skydiver will
still accelerate, but not as
much as before.
600 N
C
I’m now falling very
fast - (about 50m/s or 600 N Eventually, the skydiver’s speed
115 mph !) is high enough such that the air-
resistance is equal to the
weight. Resultant force is zero,
so zero acceleration. (Newton’s
1st law) – terminal velocity
600 N
The parachute is opened here.

velocity (m/s) C Air-resistance increases
suddenly, and so speed
decreases (parachutist DOES
NOT GO UP!) until the forces
B
balance again. A new terminal
velocity is reached.
time (s)
A
Unit 6.3 – Work done & Energy
Work Done
Doing ‘work’ in Physics means something very specific – it

means a force is acting on an object causing some energy
to be transferred. Work is calculated like this :
Work done = Force x distance

W= Fxd W the equation are :
F x d F= W d = W
d F
Work, W, (or energy transferred) is measured in joules (J)
Force, F, is measured in newtons (N)
Distance, d, is measured in metres, (m)
It’s very important to remember the following fact :
Work done = energy transferred
In correct terms, we should say that “Work done on an object is always equal
to the energy transferred to or by the object”. Here are 2 examples to
explain this :
The force (by the person that’s Sleigh gets faster

pushing) is doing work on the sleigh.
This 240 J of work done is transferred
to the sleigh, so it gains 240 J of 80 N
kinetic energy - it speeds up.
Ice
3m
The force is again doing the same

amount of work on the sleigh, and so
240 J of energy must have gone
somewhere !
Sleigh stays at a constant speed
This time, however, there’s friction.
The frictional force is equal to the
pushing force. The work done (240 J) is 80 N
transferred/wasted as heat and sound
(not extra kinetic).
Grass Friction
3m 80 N
Work Done & Energy transfers
There are a number of different energy types, although all can be thought of as either
kinetic or potential.
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy of a moving object.
Here’s the equation to calculate KE :
2
Kinetic energy = mass x speed KE = ½ m v2
2
In order to find the speed of an object of known mass

and KE, the above equation is re-arranged like this :
KE
v = 2 KE or v = KE .
0.5 x m x
v2 m 0.5 m
Using the triangle
(Gravitational) Potential Energy (PE) is the energy an object has because of its
position (usually its height above ground, or some other reference point).
Here’s the equation to calculate PE :
Change in = mass x gravitational x change in PE = mgh

potential energy field strength height
PE is measured in joules, J
PE m is measured in kilograms, kg
g is measured in N/kg (or m/s2)
m x g x h h is measured in metres, (m)
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can’t be created or

destroyed, only transferred from one form to another.
Hence, when an object, e.g. a ball, falls towards the ground, its gravitational
potential energy (PE) decreases as it is transferred into kinetic energy (KE).
However, for all everyday situations, friction and air-resistance

tend to act on moving objects, which change some of the
energy into heat & sound. This is why a bouncing ball can never
bounce back to the same height - some of its energy changes
to heat and sound, mainly each time it strikes the floor, but also
almost continuously by air-resistance.
For objects falling downwards For objects thrown upwards
PEloss = KEgain + W KEloss = PEgain + W
where W = work done by air-resistance and/or friction
Notice that the above are both ‘conservation of energy’ word equations. If the exam.
question says that air-resistance and friction can be ignored, then just write one of
the above word equation without the ‘work done’, ‘W’.
Also, remember that if there is some energy lost from the moving object through
frictional forces, i.e. ‘W’ is NOT zero, then you can also use this equation for work
done :
Work = Force x distance W=Fxd
Example 1( P2, Jan 2012) - Answers at bottom of page !!
HINTS !!

Simply add the KEtop and the

PE.
Find the difference

between the energy of the
cyclist at the bottom and at
the top – this ‘difference’ is
equal to the work done by
frictional forces.
Answers
(a) (i) KEbottom = 0.5 m v2 = 7610 J
(ii) Etotal = KEtop + PE = 1130 + 5400 = 6530 J
(b) Expected method (b) Alternative method
Wfriction = KEbottom - Etotal = 1080 J KEloss = PEgain + Wfriction

Friction = Wfriction / distance = 60 N hence, Wfriction = KEloss - PEgain = 1080 J
Friction = Wfriction / distance = 60 N
Example 2 ( P2, June 2012) - Answers at bottom of page !!

HINTS !!

‘Initial acceleration’ means ‘at

the start’, when the ship isn’t
moving fast enough to
experience any friction or air-
resistance. This means that
you can assume the resultant
force is equal to the ‘thrust’.
Look up the equation for ‘work

done’.
Calculate the KE twice –

once for each speed, then
find the difference.
Calculate the difference

between the work done by
the engines and the KE gain.
This is the work done by the
frictional forces.
Answers
(a) a = 0.013 m/s2
(b) (i) Wengine = 3.84 x 109 J
(ii) KEgain = KEfinal - KEinitial = 3.36 x 109 J
(iii) Wdrag = 4.80 x 108 J ; hence, Drag = Wdrag / distance = 2.00 x 105 N
Stretching materials
Hooke’s Law
When a force is applied to a material that is attached at one end,

or if forces are applied at both ends of the material in opposite
directions, the material will EXTEND (stretch). Some materials, like F F
a metal spring, will stretch in a very uniform, and hence predictable
way, and follow this equation :
F = k x F
where, F = force measured in newtons, N

k = spring constant measured in N/m
x = extension measured in metres, m
(This is known as “Hooke’s Law”)
This equation into words : The extension of a material is directly proportional to

the force.
Energy stored in a stretched material

You may recall that “energy transferred = work done”, so if we want to know how much elastic
potential energy a stretched spring has, we only need to find how much work was done stretching it !
Work done is always equal to the area under a Force-extension graph.
So, for a material obeying Hooke’s Law, this is simply

the area of a triangle.
Energy stored in a stretched spring obeying Hooke’s Law ,
EPE = ½ F x
Stopping distance & Car Safety
There are many safety features
in modern cars/vehicles – some
are shown in the picture. 
The main features are :
1) Seat belts
2) Crumple zones
3) Airbags
4) Side-impact bars
5) Passenger cell
Feature What it is How it works

A strong belt strapped Prevents the person being thrown
Seat belt around the body forwards in a crash
A section that Decreases the deceleration, and so the
Crumple zone deforms/compresses on impact force
A bag that inflates rapidly Acts as a cushion to prevent the head
Airbag in front of the person during a of the passenger from hitting the front/side
crash of the inside of the car
Strengthens the doors to better protect
Strong bars inside the car
Side-impact doors
the passengers from another car hitting from
the side
Protects the passengers from impacts
A rigid cage around the
Passenger cell passengers
in all directions, but especially from a
collapsing roof (when the car’s upside-down)
Car manufacturers intentionally crash cars with dummies inside

to assess the effectiveness of various safety features.
The idea behind crumple zones and airbags is to reduce the

force on passengers during a crash.
Since Force = , if you increase the distance over which the energy is
transferred, it will reduce the force.
Example: a person is sitting inside a moving car. The car is moving with a speed of 30
m/s. The person’s mass is 75kg. Calculate the person’s kinetic energy.
KE = 0.5 m v2 = 0.5 x 75 x 900 = 33 750 J
The car deforms a little during the collision. This means the passengers reduce their
speed over a certain distance. In a car without a proper ‘crumple zone’, this distance is
about 40cm. With a crumple zone it increases to 60cm. The seat belt also stretches a
little, so increases these distances by 4cm. Calculate the force acting on the passeneger
in a normal car, and then in a car with a crumple zone. If the person travelling in the
car has 33,750 J of kinetic energy before the collision. The work done happens over a
distance of 0.64m with a crumple zone.
Grym = W / x = 33750 / 0.64 = 52 734 N (With crumple zone)

Grym = W / x = 33750 / 0.44 = 76 705 N (No crumple zone)
Therefore the force on the occupant is much less when a crumple zone is used.
Improving the efficiency of vehicles.
Feature Picture How it works.

Cars are designed to reduce
aerodynamic losses by using more
streamlined designs. This allows the car
Aerodynamic losses to move through the air as easily as
possible.
Rolling resistance is reduced by

having correctly inflated tyres
Rolling resistance and using materials which don’t
heat up as much as they are
squashed.
Stop–start systems reduce idling losses.

If the car is stopped in traffic the engine
Idling losses
shuts down automatically and then re-
starts automatically when the
accelerator is pressed
Inertial losses Inertial losses are reduced by having

lighter cars. Materials such as carbon
fibre are used instead of metals for
parts of the bodywork.
Unit 6.4 – Stars and planets
The Solar System.

The planets all move in an orbit around the Sun. The order of the
planets is: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune, (Pluto is a ‘dwarf planet’).
The planets seen above are shown to the correct scale according to their relative sizes,
but are far from scale in terms of their distances from the Sun.
(On the scale shown, the Earth should be about 15metres away from the Sun !!)
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are rocky planets, the rest are gas giants. Most of the
planets have moons which are in orbit around them. Saturn and Jupiter have the
greatest number of moons because they have the strongest gravitational pull.
Asteroids.
Asteroids are lumps of rock which are
in orbit around the Sun but are too small to be
called planets. The asteroid belt is located
between Mars and Jupiter and contains a number
of dwarf planets. Ceres is largest of these with a
diameter of 587 miles.
Comets.
Comets are lumps of ice and dust
which are in a highly elliptical orbit around
the Sun. They travel very far out of our solar
system and take a number of years to return
closer to the Sun. Halley’s Comet is one of
the most famous, it has an orbital period of
about 75 years.
Scale and distances in space.
Astronomical Unit (AU): The mean distance from the centre of the
Earth to the centre of the Sun.
1AU = 1.496 x 1011m
The light year (l-y): the distance light travels in one year.
1 l-y = 9.46 x 1015m
The Earth – our home ! http://htwins.net/scale2

Diameter = 12,800 km.
The closest object to us in space is the
Moon. (It’s about 30 Earth diameters away).
X 100
Our star – the Sun. All objects in the solar
system orbit around the Sun.
It’s about 100 times as big as the Earth.
X 3000
Our solar system.
The picture at the top of this page shows
what it contains. Diameter ~ 100 AU (1 AU
= Earth-Sun distance, 1.5x1011m)
X 40,000
Outside the solar system there’s a lot of
empty space. The nearest stars are about 4
light years away, and all spaced out about
the same distance within the galaxy.
X 10,000
A cluster of stars is known as a galaxy.
Our galaxy is called the ‘Milky Way’. It’s
about 90,000 light years across. (1 l.y. =
63 000 AU = 9.5x1015m).
X 200
The picture (), taken by the Hubble
telescope shows a large ‘cluster’ of
galaxies !
The known universe is made of many X 1000

billions of galaxies. The string-like patterns
seen are called ‘filaments’ – colossal
clusters of millions of galaxies !
Life cycle of the stars.
The diagram below shows the possible life cycle for stars of different masses. SM stands
for Solar Masses. If a star is 3SM then it is 3 times the mass of the Sun.
Gravitational collapse of a
cloud of dust and gas (nebula)
forms a protostar.
Blue Star Yellow star (e.g. The Sun)

High mass stars Low mass (< 8 SM)
(> 8 SM)
Red Super giant stage. Red giant stage.

Star is running out of Star is running out of
hydrogen. hydrogen.
Planetary nebula – the

Supernova explosion. outer layers expand
Elements heavier than outwards into space.
lead are formed.
Black hole.
Stars greater than 25 SM. White dwarf
Neutron star
Brown dwarfs are failed stars that never have enough mass in order to get hot enough to achieve
nuclear fusion.
Red dwarf stars: these are low mass stars that do achieve nuclear fusion. They are not very bright and
have very long lifetimes. They are main sequence stars.
Forces within a star.
There are 2 forces at acting inside a star.

1. Inward force of gravity
2.Outward: combination of gas and radiation
pressure.
Gas pressure: caused by rapid random motion of

particles in the sun.
Radiation pressure: caused by light hitting the particles.
For most of the life of a star it is in a stable state in

which the inward force of gravity on any part of the star
is balanced (equal) by a force due to the increasing pressure towards the centre.
If the pressure in the middle falls, this will cause a star to shrink – this will cause the pressure to rise
once more until a new equilibrium is established with the smaller core. If the pressure increases, the
star will expand.
Main sequence stars.
Main sequence stars fuse hydrogen to helium in their cores.

The colour of a star depends upon the temperature of the star. Our sun is a yellow star which is one of
the most common type. Surface temperature is 5800˚C. Stable lifetime is around 10,000 million years.
The diagram below is a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. In general, where a star is on the diagram relates
to which stage of its life cycle it’s currently in.
End of main sequence stage.
Once a star has exhausted (run out) of its supply of hydrogen the
temperature of the star’s core will decrease as nuclear fusion
ceases. This means that the gravitational force is greater than the
gas and radiation pressure causing the core to shrink.
Fusion of helium will then soon start in the core as the
temperature increases due to gravitational collapse, once again
resulting in an increase in gas and radiation pressure. The fusion
reactions are now much more ‘fierce’ than before (higher temp.),
and so the increased gas and radiation pressure causes the star’s
outer layers to expand – the star is now a red giant.
At the end of the main sequence stage of our Sun the:

 Light elements (Hydrogen and Helium) fuse in the centre
 Centre is exhausted of light elements – nuclear reactions stop, causing pressure to drop
 Star nucleus shrinks, making density and temperature go up, allowing heavier elements to fuse
 Meanwhile the lighter elements continue fusing in a shell around the nucleus
 Stars like the Sun never reach sufficient temperatures to fuse elements heavier than oxygen
 The outer layers of the star are pushed off by the radiation pressure of the core – enriching the
interstellar medium with heavier elements.
 A very dense core remains known as a white dwarf (1 teaspoon has a mass of 5 tons).
Useful website http://aspire.cosmic-ray.org/Labs/StarLife/
A new beginning !
All the material from a supernova mixes up with interstellar dust and gas.
The shockwave from a supernova can also ‘kickstart’ the collapse of a
nebula. The effect then is that the dust and gas in a nebula (now
enriched with heavier elements from the supernova) contracts over time.
As the nebula (or part of it) contracts, the ‘gravitational collapse’

converts gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy, i.e. the dust
and gas becomes hotter and hotter.
Eventually the temperature at the heart of the nebula reaches a M16 : AKA “The eagle
sufficiently high temperature and density for fusion to start – a star is nebula – pillars of
born ! creation”.
During formation rocks tended to gather close to the Sun and formed the
rocky planets whilst gaseous substances gathered together at distances
further away and formed the gas planets.
Unit 6.5 – Types of radiation
Nuclear physics.
To understand what radioacivity is you must understand what makes an atom radioactive.
The atom consists of:
6 protons
6 neutrons
6 electrons
where X is the symbol for the element
Proton number (or Atomic number) ( Z ) - This tells us the number of protons
in the atom/nucleus.
Nucleon number (aka Mass Number) ( A )– This tells us the number of protons
and neutrons in the atom/nucleus.
A mathematical formula to calculate the number of neutrons ‘N’ in terms of A and Z.
N = A – Z
Example: of protons = 3
Number of neutrons ‘N’ = A – Z = 7 – 3 = 4
Isotopes: These are atoms of the same element which have the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons. They have the same proton number and
differing nucleon number.
Example. Iodine-123 and iodine-131 are isotopes. Iodine-123 has 53 protons

and 70 neutrons whereas iodine-131 has 53 protons and 78 neutrons.
The higher the proton number of the element the more neutrons the element will
have compared to protons.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Why is an atom radioactive? If an atom has an imbalance of protons

and neutrons in the nucleus it will be also be UNSTABLE. (This does not
mean an equal number of protons and neutrons).
The nucleus tries to become stable by breaking up into stable fragments:

12 13 14
RADIOACTIVE DECAY. Carbon has three common isotopes C, Ca C. Carbon-14 is
radioactive because it has an imbalance of protons and neutrons.
Carbon will emit radiation to try and make itself stable, a nitrogen nucleus is formed in
the process. This process is called RADIOACTIVE DECAY.
There are 3 types of radiation emitted from the nucleus.
Information Alpha ( α ) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)
Symbol
γ
What is it? A helium nucleus Fast moving/ High energy
(2 protons and 2 high energy
neutrons). electron. electromagnetic wave.
What can stop

Few mm of
it? Penetrating Thin sheet of paper, Several cm of lead or
aluminium or up to
power. skin or few cm of air very thick concrete.
a metre of air.
Ionising power Low (compared with

Very high – most
alpha and beta). Easily
damaging inside the Medium
passes through the
body.
body.
Balancing nuclear equations.
Alpha decay
During alpha decay the number of protons decreases by 2 and the

number of neutrons decreases by 2. Therefore the proton number
decreases by 2 and the nucleon number decreases by 4.
General equation: +
Balance the following nuclear equations by calculating the value of a, b, c and d.
1. +
2. +
Beta decay.
During beta decay the number of protons increases by 1 and

the number of neutrons decreases by 1. Therefore the
proton number increases by 1 and the nucleon number stays
the same
General equation: +
+
Balance the following nuclear equations by calculating the value of a, b, c and d.
1. +
2. +
Ionising radiation.
Ionising:- some particles and electromagnetic waves (both are radiation) have enough
energy to rip electrons away from atoms and molecules. Ions are formed which can interact
with cells in the body and damage DNA/cells. This damage can lead to the formation of
cancer.
Ionising radiation include: alpha, beta, gamma, x-rays and ultraviolet.

Non-ionising radiation: visible light, infrared, microwave and radio waves.
Radioactive decay:
Some atoms are unstable and so we say that they are
radioactive. They try to become stable emitting alpha, beta or
gamma radiation. The process of atoms undergoing radioactive
decay is totally random and spontaneous. There is no way of
telling when or which atom will decay in a radioactive material.
A Geiger counter can be used to measure the ionising

radiation. To gain greater accuracy when measuring
radioactive decay we must do 2 things:
1. Repeat the experiment and calculate the average.
2.Carry out the experiment over a longer period of

time.
Background radiation.
Background radiation: background radiation is all around as radioactive atoms emit alpha,
beta and gamma radiation. Most of the background radiation comes from natural sources.
The pie chart shows the sources of background radiation.
Natural sources: Radon, Cosmic

radiation (from space), radon, rocks,
food and buildings. Background
radiation varies with altitude as at
higher altitudes there will be more
cosmic radiation.
Artificial sources: medical and

nuclear industry.
Correcting for background : If the background count was 30 counts per minute (30
count/minute) then if we are measuring the activity of a radioactive source we must
subtract the background count rate. If the count rate was therefore measured to be 150
count/minute what is the count rate from the radiation source?
Radiation from source only = 150 - 30 = 120
(total) (background) (radiation from source)
Determining the type of radiation emitted by a radioactive source
Example question: Various materials are placed between the Geiger tube and the radioactive
material. The following information is recorded about the radioactive material. The count rate has
not been corrected for background.
No absorber Paper absorber Sheet of aluminium 20cm of lead
Count rate detected 250 50 50 0.5

(counts/s)
Question: determine the type and amount of each radiation emitted by the radioactive material.
1st point: the count drops from 250 to 50 with a shielding of paper. This indicates the presence of alpha
radiation. Count rate alpha = 250 – 50 = 200 count/s.
2nd point: placing aluminium in front has no effect so there’s no beta present.
3rd point: the lead decreases the count/s so must be gamma radiation present.
Count rate gamma = 50 – 0.5 = 49.5 count/s.
4th point: Background count = 0.5 count/s. All (almost) gamma radiation should be stopped by 20cm of lead.
Summary: alpha = 200 count/s, beta = 0 count/s, gamma = 49.5 count/s, background = 0.5 count/s
Radon Gas.
Radon gas is formed when uranium in volcanic rocks like granite undergoes radioactive decay to
form radium and then the radium decays to radon gas. High levels of radon gas can lead to lung
cancer.
The radon gas is an alpha emitter which is the worst kind as

it the most highly ionising and does the most damage if it
gets inside the body.
The dark areas on the map

are places with higher levels
of radon gas. Radon gas enters
your home through the
gaps/cracks in the floor.
If the level of radon is above 200 Bq/m3, (1 Becquerel is

decay per second) then action should be taken to reduce
the levels of radon in your home:
1. Improve ventilation by opening windows.

2. Fitting air bricks to improve under floor ventilation.
3. Install a fan to extract radon gas from a sump underneath the house.
Radiation dose.
Measuring the received dose of radiation: The higher the radiation received can increase
your risk of developing cancer. Scientists can measure the dose
in units of sievert (Sv). One sievert is a large dose and
therefore they use milisievert (mSv).
The higher the dose received the more damage has been done.
The dose received depends upon two things:
1. The type of radiation (alpha, beta or gamma)
2. The amount of radiation received.
Over the world the average dose received is 2.4 milisievert (0.0024Sv) a year. Some places
in Cornwall receive doses of 7.8 mSv.
Available scientific evidence does not indicate any cancer risk or immediate effects at
doses below 100 mSv a year. At low levels of exposure, the body's natural repair
mechanisms seem to be adequate to repair radiation damage to cells soon after it occurs.
Protecting against radiation
There are four ways in which people are protected

from identified radiation sources:
1. Limiting time. In the workplace situations,
dose is reduced by limiting exposure time.
2. Distance. The intensity of radiation decreases

with distance from its source.
3. Shielding. Barriers of lead, concrete or water

give good protection from high levels of
penetrating radiation such as gamma rays.
Intensely radioactive materials are therefore
often stored or handled under water, or by
remote control in rooms constructed of thick
concrete or lined with lead.
4. Containment. Highly radioactive materials are

confined and kept out of the workplace and environment. Nuclear reactors operate
within closed systems with multiple barriers which keep the radioactive materials
contained.
Storing Nuclear Waste
Nuclear waste is produced by the nuclear industry in nuclear power stations and nuclear
medicine. Nuclear waste is very
difficult to get rid of and make
safe.
Only time can reduce the radiation

emitted because they can remain
radioactive for a long period of
time (thousands of years with
some materials). It is very costly to
process, store and guard the
nuclear waste.
Nuclear power stations produce the vast majority of the nuclear waste. Due to the
radiation emitted the waste is very hot and so must be cooled. It is then turned into a glass
so that it cannot flow. The waste is placed inside steel drums and then sealed in concrete.
Deep underground is one possible idea for storage. Care must be taken that the waste
does not pollute the local water source if it were to leak.
Unit 6.6 : Half-life
There are billions upon billions of atoms in a small amount of a radioactive sample so the chance
that one atom will undergo decay is high.
Is it possible to determine which radioactive nuclei/atom will decay next in the
sample? No, because the process is random. Is it possible to determine when
the next radioactive nuclei will decay? No, because the process is spontaneous.
Since its random and spontaneous process we can get more accurate
information/results by:
1. Repeating. 2. Measuring over a long time.
The half life.
Each half life the number of unstable

atoms halves. The half life remains
constant.
The half life is the time it takes for half the unstable atoms to decay.
The half life is the time it takes for the activity to halve from its original value.
Actvity. The activity is a measure of number of radioactive decays per second. It is measured in
becquerel, Bq. So an activity of 1 becquerel is equivalent to 1 radioactive decay per second. The
activity of a sample of radioactive material will depend on 2 things:
1. The number of radioactive/unstable atoms present.
2. The half life of the atoms.
The more atoms present the greater the activity. The shorter the half life the greater the activity.
Example. A radioactive isotope has an activity of 6400Bq.The half life of the isotope is 8 hours.
What is its activity after 32 hours?
There have been 4 half lives totalling 32 hours (8 hours x 4).
Radioactive decay curves.
Whether you are plotting a graph of activity or the number of radioactive atoms the curve/line of the
graph is the same. In this example the activity of the isotope iodine-131 has been plotted against
time. The sample has a starting/initial activity of 16 MBq (16,000,000Bq).
(i) We can calculate the half life using the method shown above. You must choose one activity value
and then halve it. In the example the activity has halved from 8MBq to 4MBq. This has taken 8 days so
we can say that the half life of iodine-131 is 8 days.
(ii) We can also calculate how long it will take for the activity to fall a certain amount, e.g. from 9 MBq
to 3 MBq. The activity was 9 MBq after 6.8 days and the activity was 3 MBq after 19.2 days. Therefore
by calculating the time difference we can calculate how long this took.
19.2 – 6.8 = 12.4 days.
(iii) How long would it take for the activity to fall from 1 MBq to 250,000 Bq?
It is not possible to continue the graph so we must use the same method as on the previous page.
1 MBq = 1,000,000 Bq 1 500,000 Bq 2 250,000 Bq

8 days 8 days
Total time = 8 + 8 = 16 days
Uses of radioactive materials
There are many uses of radioactive materials; carbon dating, sterilising medical equipment, killing
cancer cells, smoke alarms and controlling the thickness of aluminium foil.
What is required is that you can select from a given list and explain which isotope is suitable for
use in a specific case. Consider: 1. Penetrating power. 2. Half life. 3. Biological effect.
In this case we will choose one of the isotopes for a particular use and explain our reasoning.
Example of radioactive isotope. The half life given in brackets ( )

Gamma – γ Beta Alpha
Technetium-99 (6.01hrs) Iridium-192 (74 days) Polonium-210 (138days)
Cobalt-60 (5.27 yrs) Strontium-90 (28.5 yrs) Americium-241 (432 yrs)
Carbon-14 (5730yrs) Plutonium-238 (87.7 yrs)
(a) Monitoring the thickness of aluminium sheet in a factory.
Isotope chosen : Strontium – 90 (beta emitter).
Reason: because fewer beta particles will pass through when the
thickness of aluminium increases. The half life is fairly long so the
source will last a reasonable amount of time.
(b) Medical tracer in monitoring internal organs by using a camera

outside the body.
Isotope chosen: Technetium-99 (γ – emitter)
Reason: because it’s a gamma emitter, it passes out of the body easily.
The half life is short so it will not remain in the body for a long time.
(c) A smoke detector.
Isotope chosen: Americium-241 (alpha emitter)
Reason: Gamma more penetrating than alpha so it would

not be blocked by smoke. It has a longer half life so
detector stays active / keeps working for a longer period
of time. (Polonium-210 has too short a half life so it
would not last very long and therefore it’s not suitable).
(Triple) Unit 2.4 – Further Motion
The equations
Speed is defined as the distance moved per unit time, and hence, the equation for
speed is :
speed = distance Distance is measured in metres (m)

time Speed is measured in metres per seconds (m/s)
If the speed is not constant this equation can still be used, but it gives a value for the
average speed.
There are also equations for objects that are accelerating, e.g.
acceleration = change in speed a = v - u

time Re-arranging  t
v = u + at
If the acceleration is constant, then there are 3 other equations that we can use. These are
known as the ‘equations of motion’ or ‘kinematic equations’, and are all given in the
examination :
v = u + at x = (u +v) t
2
x = ut + ½ a t2 v2 = u2 + 2a x
Symbol Quantity Unit

x = distance/displacement m
u = initial velocity m/s
v = final velocity m/s
a = acceleration m/s2
t = time s
All the above quantities, except for ‘time’, are vectors, meaning that they must have a
direction. For example, displacement is simply the ‘straight line’ distance between the
start and end point of your journey, in a certain direction.
The equations
Remember !!
These equations only work if the acceleration is constant.
This means that the equations work well for objects moving under
the influence of gravity, but only if the friction and air-resistance
are negligible. They work very well on the surface of the moon and
Mars etc., since there’s little or no air, so the acceleration due to
gravity has a constant value near the surface. They also work fairly
well on Earth, as long as air-resistance isn’t too large !
Mars’ curiosity probe, 2012
Example 1
A child, initially sitting on the edge of a diving platform, lets himself drop
into the swimming pool 4 m below. Assuming no air-resistance, and given
that the acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2, calculate,
(i) the child’s speed as he hits the water
Start by inserting all known values :
x = 4 m Since 3 of the 5 quantities are known, we can use the equations

u = 0 m/s of motion to calculate the other 2.
v = ? The only equation with ‘x’, ‘u’, ‘v’ and ‘a’ (i.e. not ‘t’) is :
a = 9.81m/s2
t = ? v2 = u2 + 2 a x
v2 = 0 + 2 x 9.81 x 4
2
v = 78.48
… and so, the answer is v = 8.9 m/s
(ii) the time it takes the child to reach the water’s surface
We now know 4 values :
x = 4 m Since 4 of the 5 quantities are known, we can use any equation

u = 0 m/s containing ‘t’. Here’s the easiest one :
v = 8.9 m/s
a = 9.81m/s2 v = u + at
t = ? Re-arranging  t = v – u = 8.9 - 0 = 0.91 s
a 9.81
Since these equations only work if the acceleration is constant, we can only calculate the
speed of the child just before making contact with the water’s surface, as once contact is
made, the acceleration changes. This is very important in cases where something falls to the
ground – the final velocity,v, is NOT ZERO since we’re calculating the velocity just before the
object hits the ground.
The equations
Remember that displacement, velocity and acceleration are all ‘vectors’ – you
must be aware of their directions.
In the last example this wasn’t a problem since the direction of movement was in the same
direction as gravity (downwards). However, you must be prepared for examination questions
that involve using the correct direction, as shown in the next example :
Example 2
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 7.2 m/s.
Taking the acceleration as 9.81 m/s2 , calculate,
(a) the time it takes to reach its maximum height
We start by deciding on a ‘positive’ direction. So, let’s take upwards as positive.

Next, lets insert all given values :
x = ? At first glance it seems we’re stuck as we need 3 values but

u = +7.2 m/s only have 2 ! However, since the question asks for the time it
v = ? takes to reach the greatest height, we know that, at this
instant, the final velocity, v is zero !
a = - 9.81 m/s2
t = ? Also notice that the acceleration is negative (since it’s always
downwards)
The only equation containing ‘u’, ‘v’, ‘a’ and ‘t’ (i.e.not ‘x ’) is :
v = u + at
Re-arranging  t = v – u = 0 - 7.2 = + 0.73 s
a - 9.81
(b) the maximum height reached by the ball
We now know 4 values : Since 4 of the 5 quantities are known, we can use any equation
containing ‘x’:
x = ?
u = + 7.2 m/s x = ut + ½ a t2
v = 0
a = - 9.81 x = (7.2 x 0.73) + (0.5 x -9.81 x 0.732)
t = 0.73 s x = 5.256 - 2.614
x = 2.64 m
Notice that if we had NOT taken direction into account, the acceleration value would have
been positive, and the answer would have been “5.256 + 2.614”, which is incorrect !!
Momentum
Momentum is a difficult thing to explain – simply, it is how much ‘motion’ an object
has. However, it is quite easy to calculate the momentum, p, of an object if you know
the object’s mass, m, and velocity, v, (velocity is the vector version of ‘speed’). This is
the equation for calculating momentum :
momentum = mass x velocity p=mxv

Docked !!
p = m x v = 3 000 x 10 p = m x v = 70 x 5 p = m x v = 50 000 000 x 0

= 30 000 kgm/s = 350 kgm/s = 0 (zero !) kgm/s
Momentum & Newton’s 2nd law

Here’s the Law of Conservation of Momentum :
The total momentum of a system of interacting bodies is constant provided

there are no external forces acting.
This law is perfectly consistent with Newton’s 3rd Law ! Take a look at the imminent collision
below :
Car A Car B
As they collide, car A will create a force to the right () on car B. Newton’s 3rd Law states that
car B will therefore produce an equal but opposite force on car A to the left ().
We need Newton’s 2nd Law too (original form)!
Force = change in momentum F= p where  p = change in momentum

time t
Re-arranging  F x t = p
Since the cars are in contact with each other for the same amount of time, F x t will have the
same value for both cars, and hence,  p will have the same value for both cars – this is
‘conservation of momentum’ since any momentum lost by car A will be given to car B.
(Remember that momentum is a vector, and so ‘positive momentum’ () from car A will seem
to ‘cancel out’ some of car B’s negative momentum !)
Momentum
Example
(a)
Answer
(c) (i) p = mv = 800 x 15 = 12000 kg m/s
(ii) v = p / m = 12000 / 1600 = 7.5 m/s (Notice the mass is the total mass of both cars)
(iii) F = 16 000 N to the left (equal but opposite)
(d) (i) v = zero !!

(ii) Momentum is a vector. The total momentum before collision is therefore zero since they have equal
momenta, but in opposite directions. Hence, the total momentum after collision must be zero.
Is kinetic energy conserved in collisions ?
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. However, energy can be transferred from the
kinetic energy of a colliding object (e.g. a car) into heat and sound energy which
escapes into the surroundings.
This means that it’s quite normal (even expected) that KE is ‘lost’ from the colliding
objects during a collision. Look at the situation below :
Before collision
uA =12 m/s
After colliding, the velocity of car A reduces to 2m/s (). If the mass of car A, mA = 1400 kg, and
car B, mB = 1200 kg, then by conservation of momentum,
momentum before = momentum after

mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
16 800 + 0 = 2800 + 1200 vB
16 800 - 2800 = 1200 vB
14 000 = 1200 vB
vB = 11.67 m/s (to the right)
Note : Since the answer is a positive number, we therefore know that it is to the right.
We can now check to see what happens to the kinetic energy of the cars :
KE before = KEcar A = 0.5 m v2 = 0.5 mA uA2 = 0.5 x 1400 x 122 = 100 800 J
KE after = KEcar A + KEcar B = 2800 + 81 667 = 84 467 J
This shows that some KE is lost during the collision. Notice we do not take direction into
consideration here since kinetic energy is NOT a vector.
Elastic collision : There is no loss in kinetic energy.
Inelastic collision : There is loss in kinetic energy.
Moments
“Moment” is the word used to describe the ‘turning effect’ of a force. It is calculated using the
following equation :
Moment = Force x distance to the pivot M = F x d
And so we can say that for a rotating system that is in equilibrium (balanced),
The sum of the clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of
the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
This is known as the “Principle of Moments”.
Examples
A) Is the system balanced?
Ted weighs 1.8N and is 32cm from the pivot. Pivot
The star weighs 1.2N and is 48cm from the pivot.
Clockwise moment, M = F x d = 1.2 x 48 = 57.6Ncm

Both forces’ lines of
Anti-clockwise moment, M = F x d = 1.8 x 32 = 57.6Ncm action are at 90˚ to the
direction of the pivot
Weight
of ted Weight
of star
Both moments are equal, and so the system is balanced.
B) The pivot is at the mid-point of an uniform beam. Find the weight, W, when the beam is in equilibrium.
25cm 20cm
P
100N
F
Since the system is in equilibrium,

M = M
i.e. 100 x 0.2 = 0.25 x F
F = 20
0.25
F = 80 N
(Triple) Unit 2.6 – The Universe
Spectra
Sir Isaac Newton passed ‘white’ light

through a small glass prism, and found
that white light is actually a mixture
of all the different colours or
wavelengths in the visible spectrum :
A better device to ‘split-up’ light is a ‘diffraction grating’. The surface

of a CD or DVD acts like a diffraction grating – you may have noticed a
rainbow effect when you look at them ?
If you want to analyse light from stars or galaxies, you

will need a spectrometer. This has a diffraction
grating that splits all the different wavelengths up in a
very precise way.
The picture below shows the Sun’s spectrum as you would see it through a spectrometer.
If it were in colour, you would see that almost all the colours (or wavelengths) can be
seen, but, there are quite a few wavelengths ‘missing (dark lines). Why ?
Red  Green  Blue  Violet
R
O
Y
G
Light produced by a star contains all the (visible)
B wavelengths.
I
V
However, this light has to travel
through the star’s atmosphere and
then through space before it
reaches our telescopes.
Dust and gas, either in a

This dust and gas absorbs some
star’s atmosphere or in of the wavelengths/colours of
large clouds in space (nebulae). the light from the star.
This means that if this light is

then looked at through a
spectrometer dark lines are
seen where there are
‘missing’ wavelengths.
Spectra
These dark lines are known as absorption lines.
Each different element can only absorb a certain set of colours. This means that
each element has a kind of ‘unique fingerprint’. Check out this website :
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/elements/Elements.html
Since every different element has its own ‘unique fingerprint’ of absorption lines,
31
if the position of these lines in a star’s spectrum is studied carefully, you can tell
which chemicals/elements are present.
Scientists have been using this method since the 19th century to identify the
elements in stars and gas clouds in space (nebulae).
When astronomers started looking at the light from stars within our own galaxy,
they saw that the absorption lines were mainly those produced by Hydrogen and
Helium (the 2 simplest atoms).
The Big Surprise !!

When astronomers analysed the light from other galaxies they found the same
absorption lines as before (mainly Hydrogen and Helium), but they were all shifted
towards the red end of the spectrum i.e. red shifted !
V I B G Y O R
Our Sun’s spectrum
A nearby galaxy’s spectrum
A distant galaxy’s spectrum
A very distant galaxy’s spectrum
Edwin Hubble, an American astronomer, studied this curious

effect at length.
He realised that the further away a galaxy is, the more red-
shifted its light appears.
Edwin Hubble
This led him to realise that the universe is expanding, as (1889-1953)
previously predicted, and that it was therefore much smaller in
the distant past, and had a definite beginning – the Big Bang !
The Big Bang !!
How does the ‘cosmological red shift’ seen by Hubble show

that the Universe is expanding ?
The idea is that if the Universe has

been expanding since the Big Bang,
then the light waves that have been
travelling through it must also have
been stretched. If light waves are
stretched then their wavelengths will
be greater i.e. they will appear red-
shifted.
Big Bang Prediction
The Big Bang theory suggests that our Universe began with a massive explosion throwing
energy (gamma rays) out in all directions. The Universe, therefore, began in a very hot and
very dense state, but has been expanding and cooling since.
This idea of an expanding universe brought about

an important prediction :
The enormous ‘flash’ of light at the beginning of

the universe should still be visible today.
However, because the universe has been expanding
for billions of years, this light (originally gamma
rays) should be severely red-shifted. It should now be microwave radiation and should be
seen everywhere in all directions.
In 1964, 2 scientists, Penzias & Wilson found this

background radiation, completely by accident. It’s now
known as the CMBR (Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation). They both received a Nobel prize in 1978 for
their work, since this is very strong, independent
evidence for the Big Bang !
The Big Bang !!
Summary
1st - The Big Bang theory was proposed.

Recessional speed / Redshift
2nd - Edwin Hubble’s measurements showed that the X

further away a galaxy is the greater the redshift.
This became known as COSMOLOGICAL X
REDSHIFT.
The graph seen  was strong evidence that the X
X
Universe is expanding.
Distance away
3rd – A prediction :– Cosmological Redshift means that the gamma waves from
the big bang should have moved to the microwave region of the spectrum by
today, and that scientists should be able to see this “background” radiation
left over from the Big Bang in all directions.
4th - Penzias a Wilson found the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. (CMBR)
5th – The wavelength and temperature of the microwave radiation from the big bang
was at the exact temperature that was expected/ predicted by the Big Bang.
Theory Evidence
Cosmological redshift – more distant galaxies

The universe is expanding
have greater redshifts
Large explosion (big bang) at CMB radiation is the red-shifted gamma rays
the start. produced by the Big Bang.
Unit 2.9 – Nuclear Decay & Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission. This is a decay process in which an unstable nucleus splits into two fragments of
comparable mass or to put it another way it is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei.
Most elements need to be stimulated to undergo fission; this is done by bombarding them with
neutrons. The process is called induced fission. Fission of uranium-235 will occur when it absorbs a
slow moving neutron, making the resulting nuclide 236U, unstable. The 236U is in a highly excited state
and splits into two fragments almost instantaneously.
Uranium Isotopes. There are two main isotopes of uranium –

uranium-238 and uranium-235. Uranium which is mined is 99.3% U-
238 and only 0.7% U-235. This uranium must be enriched to make
bombs, which means increasing the amount of U235 present. In
nuclear reactors the uranium is only slightly enriched. Uranium-238
and uranium-235 are radioactive.
Chain reaction. During fission of uranium-235
neutrons are emitted as fission products. A large

amount of energy is released.
Sustainable fission involves one of the neutrons

causing further decay. Just because it’s a chain
reaction it does not mean that it will result in an
explosion.
Balancing fission nuclear equations. When uranium-235 undergoes fission the same
products/nuclei are not produced each time.
Example
1 + + + 4
Left: total A = 235 + 1 = 236 Right: total A= 135 + 97 + (4 x 1 ) = 236

Total Z = 0 + 92 = 92 Total Z = 52 + 40 + (4 x 0) = 92
The total A (nucleon) and Z (proton) numbers on both sides must be equal/the same.
Balance the following nuclear equations by calculating the missing numbers (letters a, b, c and d)
1. 1 + + + 3
2. 1 + + + d
The fission fragments are themselves unstable.
Nuclear Reactor
In a thermal nuclear reactor the chain reaction is steady and controlled (hopefully) so that on
average only one neutron, from each fission produces another fission.
Control rods and the moderator.
Moderator
The moderator slows down neutrons to allow them cause further fission. The neutrons released in the
fission of U-235 are not fast enough to cause fission in U-238 but fast enough to be captured. So in a thermal
reactor, the neutrons must be slowed down so that they avoid capture by the U-238 and cause fission in U-
235.
The moderator surrounds the fuel rods and is used to slow down the neutrons. Most nuclear reactors use
water as a moderator whilst some use graphite rods. The advantage of using water as a moderator is that is
can also be used as the coolant to transfer the heat energy away from the reactor to generate electricity.
However if the coolant is lost, (as happened in Fukushima in Japan tsunami March 2011) the neutrons will
not be slowed down and so the nuclear chain reaction stops but this loss of coolant cause the reactor to
overheat.
Control Rods.
They can use control rods to stops/control the number of thermal neutrons inside the fuel rods/reactor. This
alters the rate (number of fission reactions per second) at which nuclear fission takes place. The control rods
absorb the neutrons thus preventing them from causing further fission in U-235. Metals such boron and
cadmium are used to make the control rods. If a fault occurs then the control rods should drop into the
reactor automatically thus stopping the chain reaction. By moving the control rods down the chain reaction
is slowed down (more thermal neutrons absorbed) and it can be speeded up by moving the control rods up
(fewer neutrons absorbed).
Steel is used as a material for the pressurised reactor vessel which is then surrounded by thick walls of
concrete. The steel vessel is pressurised to prevent the water from boiling but can be dangerous if
overheating occurs, causing the vessel to explode. The water in the vessel is not the same water which is
used to drive the turbine.
Unfortunately the fission products e.g. Barium, Krypton, Caesium and Iodine, which are contained within the
fuel rods, are also radioactive and many have very long half-lives. They are radioactive because they have a
too many neutrons and so usually undergo beta decay. Once the uranium-235 has been used up in the fuel
rods they must be stored safely under water in cooling ponds. This allows them to cool down safely, without
their radiation escaping from the building. The water also provides some shielding from the radiation. The
used fuel rods spend many years in the cooling ponds after which they are sent to places like Sellafield in
Cumbria to be reprocessed.
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion: When two smaller nuclei are joined together to form a larger
one. A Large amount of energy is released in the process.
In the Sun fusing two hydrogen nuclei is possible because of the high
pressure and they are moving at such high speeds due to the very high
temperature at the core of 15,000,000˚C.
They are experimenting with fusing light elements together. Two isotopes of hydrogen – deuterium
(1 proton, 1 neutron) and tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons) can undergo fusion to form helium
and a neutron.
This is a nuclear equation for the reaction.
+ +
Total A = 2+3 = 5 Total A = 4 + 1 = 5 Equation
Total Z = 1 + 1 = 2 Total Z = 2 + 0 = 2 Balanced
A good source for the hydrogen isotopes would be sea water.
Achieving controlled fusion on Earth.

Containment is in a doughnut shaped reactor. Deuterium
and tritium are heated to very high temperatures, using
large currents to form a plasma (ionised gas). The strong
magnetic field contains and accelerates the particles to
very high speeds so that they can collide with enough
energy to undergo nuclear fusion. The neutron that is
produced has a large amount of kinetic energy which can
be used to generate heat and then generate electricity.
The neutrons that are generated can be captured by atoms in the reactor making them unstable and
therefore radioactive. The reactor must therefore be shielded using concrete to prevent any
radiation escaping and so protect the workers.
Comparing fission and fusion.
Power Advantage Disadvantage

source
 Abundant source of deuterium and  High temperature required.
tritium in sea water.  Pressure containment of the
plasma.
Nuclear
Fusion
 Does not produce greenhouse gases.

 No long lived radioactive materials
produced.  Shielding of neutrons using
concrete
 High energy input required.
Advantage Disadvantage
 Does not produce greenhouse gases.  Radioactive material produced

 Large amount of power produced. with long half life.
 Uses small amount of fuel.  Risk of nuclear meltdown.
Nuclear
Fission
 Cost of decommissioning the
power station and storing of
waste material.

Physics Revision 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Revision 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Revision 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit 6.

Look !! Since it’s time we’re calculating, the

An electron in orbit around an atom moves at a speed of 2500 km/s !

d = s x t = 2 500 000 x 60 = 1.5 x 108 m (Almost 4 times around the Earth !)

Look !! It’s safer to use all values in metres and

…and the other two forms of

Change in velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s)

t= v = ( 12 ) = 300 s ( A full 5 minutes !)

Change in speed,  v = a x t = 48.0 x 0.45 = 21.6 m/s

So, final speed = 12.4 + 21.6 = 34.0 m/s

Distance – time graphs

There’s ONE rule for a d-t graph :

The ‘steepness’ (or more correctly ‘slope’ or ‘gradient’)

So, a STEEP line  a high speed

From B to C, the This is a straight,

This section is more difficult – since the slope is increasing,

Velocity – time graphs (or ‘speed-time’ graphs)

There are TWO rules for a v-t graph :

1. The slope/gradient is equal to the acceleration.

2. The area under the graph is equal to the distance

In the 1st section, From C to D, the gradient is

Calculating the average/mean acceleration in section BC :

Distance – time graphs Velocity – time graphs

d (m) Constant speed v (m/s) Constant

Many road accidents happen because people

Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance

Thinking distance = the distance travelled whilst reacting to a situation

Reaction time is closely linked to thinking distance as follows :

Thinking distance = speed x reaction time ( d = s x t )

@ 20 m/s Thinking distance = 20 x 0.4 = 8m

@ 40 m/s Thinking distance = 40 x 0.4 = 16m

So, thinking distance is directly proportional to the vehicle’s speed.

Braking distance also increases with the

(In fact, doubling the vehicle’s speed

To find the overall stopping distance at a particular

Sir Isaac Newton came up with three laws of motion, all of

Before looking at these three laws, it’s necessary to

In the above example, the resultant force , RF = 490 – 450 = 40N 

What’s the resultant force in the example below ?

Newton’s 1st law

In the example on the right the cyclist keeps a

If the backward forces like air-resistance are 450N

Newton’s 2nd law

So, the acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force.

Mass & Weight

Clearly, mass and weight are not the same !!

where W = weight = ‘force of gravity

Weight of rocket , W = m x g = 2.5 x 10 = 25 N

So, resultant force on the rocket = 75 – 25 = 50N ()

acceleration, a = resultant force = 50 = 20 m/s2 Weight = ? N

Newton’s 3rd law

No force can act alone.

Note : one force is on the racquet, the other on

350 N As the speed increases, so does

The parachute is opened here.

Doing ‘work’ in Physics means something very specific – it

Work done = Force x distance

Work done = energy transferred

The force (by the person that’s Sleigh gets faster

The force is again doing the same