applied

sciences
Review
Technological Breakthroughs in Sport: Current Practice and
Future Potential of Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Reality,
Augmented Reality, and Modern Data Visualization in
Performance Analysis
Victor R. A. Cossich, Dave Carlgren , Robert John Holash and Larry Katz *

Sport Technology Research Lab, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada;
victor.cossich@ucalgary.ca (V.R.A.C.); dave.carlgren@gmail.com (D.C.); rjholash@ucalgary.ca (R.J.H.)
* Correspondence: katz@ucalgary.ca; Tel.: +1-(403)-220-3418

Abstract: We are currently witnessing an unprecedented era of digital transformation in sports,

driven by the revolutions in Artificial Intelligence (AI), Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR),
and Data Visualization (DV). These technologies hold the promise of redefining sports performance
analysis, automating data collection, creating immersive training environments, and enhancing
decision-making processes. Traditionally, performance analysis in sports relied on manual data col-
lection, subjective observations, and standard statistical models. These methods, while effective, had
limitations in terms of time and subjectivity. However, recent advances in technology have ushered
in a new era of objective and real-time performance analysis. AI has revolutionized sports analysis
by streamlining data collection, processing vast datasets, and automating information synthesis. VR
introduces highly realistic training environments, allowing athletes to train and refine their skills
in controlled settings. AR overlays digital information onto the real sports environment, providing
real-time feedback and facilitating tactical planning. DV techniques convert complex data into visual
Citation: Cossich, V.R.A.; Carlgren, representations, improving the understanding of performance metrics. In this paper, we explore
D.; Holash, R.J.; Katz, L. the potential of these emerging technologies to transform sports performance analysis, offering
Technological Breakthroughs in valuable resources to coaches and athletes. We aim to enhance athletes’ performance, optimize
Sport: Current Practice and Future training strategies, and inform decision-making processes. Additionally, we identify challenges
Potential of Artificial Intelligence, and propose solutions for integrating these technologies into current sports analysis practices. This
Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality,
narrative review provides a comprehensive analysis of the historical context and evolution of per-
and Modern Data Visualization in
formance analysis in sports science, highlighting current methods’ merits and limitations. It delves
Performance Analysis. Appl. Sci.
into the transformative potential of AI, VR, AR, and DV, offering insights into how these tools can be
2023, 13, 12965. https://doi.org/
integrated into a theoretical model.
10.3390/app132312965

Academic Editors: Mark King, Keywords: sports technology; performance analysis; emerging technologies
Peter Dabnichki and Juliana Exel

Received: 27 September 2023

Revised: 16 November 2023
Accepted: 30 November 2023 1. Introduction
Published: 4 December 2023 We are witnessing an unprecedented era of digital transformation in sports, powered
by the revolutions in Artificial Intelligence (AI), Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality
(AR), and Data Visualization (DV). Effectively integrating these powerful resources into
sports is an exciting challenge. Each tool offers unique solutions and applications to
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
redefine the landscape of sports performance analysis [1–5]. Through these technologies,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
we can revolutionize performance analysis by automating data collection, processing vast
distributed under the terms and
datasets, interpreting performance, providing immersive training environments, offering
conditions of the Creative Commons real-time augmented feedback, and enhancing the decision-making process [1,6,7].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Performance analysis is a crucial element in sports science, playing a pivotal role in
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ understanding, interpreting, and ultimately improving an athlete’s performance [8–11].
4.0/). It serves as an indispensable tool that assists athletes, coaches, and sports analysts in

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312965 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 2 of 26

making informed strategic and tactical decisions that can significantly alter the outcome of
competitive sports events [12,13].
Traditionally, the process of performance analysis has predominantly relied on manual
data collection and/or input, subjective observational techniques, and standard statistical
models [14]. Despite their proven efficacy, these methods often necessitate significant time
and effort to implement, interpret, and apply [8,15]. Manual data collection involves metic-
ulous documentation of numerous performance metrics, demanding not only extensive
work hours but also a deep understanding of sport-specific parameters. Consequently,
manual data collection is prone to observational biases and discrepancies that might arise
due to the inherent subjectivity of human observation, leading to potential misinterpre-
tation of performance data [4,9]. Similarly, while statistical models have been effectively
used to decode patterns and inform strategies, they typically oversimplify the complex,
dynamic nature of sports performance, often considering only limited variables and not
adequately addressing the multifactorial aspects of sports performance [1,10,16]. These
limitations are amplified when trying to analyze performance in real-time, where swift data
processing and interpretation are essential [10,17–19]. However, technological advances
in sports science have led to a transformative change in the field, bringing forth an era of
enhanced, objective, and real-time performance analysis.
Recent AI tools captured the imagination of users and exponential adoption of the
technology has exceeded any other innovation [20–22]. With AI’s ability to streamline
data collection, process massive datasets quickly and accurately, synthesize information,
predict outcomes, and create new knowledge, it will revolutionize work and play environ-
ments. Infinite possibilities exist for using AI with future outcomes that were previously
inaccessible through traditional human analysis [23,24]. AI—a general term for many
different technologies, such as neural networks, large language model transformers, and
diffusion grids, which have been instrumental in finding previously unknown relationships
in datasets and making predictions with astonishing accuracy—boasts the capability to
automate data collection processes, reduce human error, and drastically decrease the time
taken to gather information [6,25].
VR introduces the capability to create highly realistic, immersive training environ-
ments. These environments are not simple simulations; they are commonly understood as
platforms that mimic the exact conditions of a real-world game or training scenario. Hence,
VR is recognized as an immersive environment that goes beyond mere emulation [26–28].
The advancement beyond emulation and into near-reality provides athletes with a unique
opportunity to train and refine their skills and gain a comprehensive understanding of
their performance in a controlled setting [4].
Complementing the immersive experiences offered by VR, AR presents another tech-
nological advancement that blurs the line between the physical and digital worlds [29–34].
AR can overlay digital information onto the real-world sports environment, effectively cre-
ating an interactive platform that provides real-time performance analysis [30,32–34]. This
technology can be used to analyze and provide instant feedback on an athlete’s technique,
positioning, and movements, enabling immediate adjustments and refinements [30,32–34].
Such instant feedback mechanisms facilitate quicker learning and correction of errors,
ultimately leading to improved performance. AR also holds promise in tactical planning.
Coaches can overlay digital graphics onto the field of play to explain complex tactics and
formations to players. This visual representation can enhance players’ understanding and
implementation of strategies [35–37].
Complementing the abilities of AI, VR, and AR, dynamic and interactive DV tech-
niques bring forth an entirely new dimension of performance analysis. By converting
complex data into easily understandable visual representations, this technology allows
coaches, athletes, and analysts to easily interpret and act upon performance metrics [38].
This enhanced communication of information leads to a more effective understanding of
performance patterns, trends, and areas of improvement, thereby facilitating more informed
decision-making processes [39,40].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 3 of 26

In this paper, we explore the potential of continuous emerging technologies, including

AI, VR, AR, and DV to significantly transform performance analysis within the sports
domain. These technologies can automate data collection, provide immersive and realistic
training environments, facilitate the processing and interpretation of complex performance
data, and creatively provide digital feedback in real time. The ultimate objective is to
assess the capacity of these technologies to provide coaches and athletes with valuable
resources, enhance athletes’ performance, optimize training strategies, and inform phys-
ical, technical, and tactical decisions. We also sought to identify possible challenges and
proposed solutions for integrating these technologies into current sports performance
analysis practices.

2. Overview
This narrative review provides a comprehensive analysis of the brief historical context
and evolution of performance analysis in sports science, highlighting both the merits and
limitations of current methods. It includes brief reviews and definitions of all relevant
topics. We then transition to an examination of the transformative potential of emerging
technologies such as AI, VR, AR, and DV. We explore the potential of AI for automating data
collection and processing, delve into the capabilities of VR and AR in creating immersive
and interactive training environments, and assess the power of DV in translating complex
data into digestible visual forms. Certainly, the topics are extensive, spanning decades of
knowledge, and separate reviews could be conducted individually. Therefore, our approach
focuses on providing a historical background along with the current state, particularly from
the perspective of performance analysis, and exploring how these tools can be integrated
into a theoretical model.

3. Performance Analysis in Sports

Performance analysis in sports refers to the systematic process of recording, analyzing,
and interpreting performance data with the overarching aim of enhancing athletes’ or teams’
performance (Figure 1) [41–43]. This entails the careful observation and quantification of
key performance indicators (KPIs), which vary across different sports modalities, such as
individual pursuit (e.g., track cycling or swimming), collective sports (e.g., soccer or basket-
ball), and endurance activities (e.g., marathon running or triathlon). These KPIs encompass
a wide range of elements such as skills, techniques, tactics, and physiological parameters,
which are meticulously scrutinized during both training sessions and competitive events [4].
Although the primary goal of performance analysis is to improve performance, it also plays
a crucial role in injury prevention and future performance prediction, thereby assisting in
talent discovery [44,45]. To achieve these goals, performance analysis employs a variety
of methodologies, including observational analysis, video analysis, notational analysis,
time-motion analysis, and data analysis from wearable devices [46–58]. Each of these
techniques holds its unique role in contributing valuable insights into sports performance
and can be defined as:
• Observational Analysis: This refers to the methodical process of gathering, document-
ing, and assessing data by directly observing athletes or sporting events. It involves
trained observers who meticulously record various facets of athletic performance.
This analytical approach serves as a foundation for comprehensive assessments of
athletes’ strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. It can be performed using
just the naked eye and recorded or supplemented with external data from different
sources [4,59].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 4 of 26

• Video Analysis: A technique that utilizes recorded game or training footage to study
and review an athlete’s performance or a team’s tactical approach. It allows for the
analysis of various aspects such as skills, techniques, player movement, and team
formations. The use of various video speeds, from slow motion to frame-by-frame,
enables intricate scrutiny of every action, providing detailed feedback to athletes and
coaches [11,47,51–53,55,60,61].
• Notational Analysis: This systematic process involves the recording and analysis of
discrete events that occur during a match or training session. Each event is notated
or coded to provide a quantitative means of recording the performance. The data
gathered provide an objective record of performance and can offer insights into the
effectiveness of tactics, strategies, and individual player actions [10,56,62,63].
• Time-Motion Analysis: This is a method used to quantify the physical demands of
a sport, by recording and categorizing all movements of an athlete during a match
or training session. It provides insight into the duration and intensity of various
activities, the frequency of specific movements, and the rest periods. The information
gathered can guide training and recovery programs and help evaluate players’ physical
performance during the competition [57,58,60–62,64–66].
• Data Analysis from Wearable Devices: Wearable technology has gained significant
traction in sports, with devices like Global Positioning System (GPS) trackers, heart
rate monitors, and accelerometers now commonly used. These devices capture a
range of physiological and biomechanical data, including heart rate, speed, distance
covered, body temperature, and sleep quality. Analysts use this data to monitor
player health, access games and training sessions’ external loads, and optimize perfor-
mance [47–51,57,67–69].
This rigorous combination of processes of performance analysis is usually conducted
by sports or performance analysts, also known as sports statisticians [70,71]. These pro-
fessionals collect, organize, interpret, and present data related to sports events, teams,
and individual athletes [72]. The insights gleaned from their analysis are instrumental in
shaping informed judgments about sports performance, devising strategies, and predicting
outcomes [71,73]. However, traditional performance analysis methods face challenges
such as the potential for observational bias, data oversimplification, time-consuming data
collection processes, and difficulties in analyzing performance in real time (Table 1). These
limitations underline the need for technological advancements in the field, which can
enhance objectivity, speed, accuracy, efficiency, and real-time applicability of performance
analysis in sports.
Recognizing the value of traditional performance analysis methods allows us to
fully appreciate the transformative potential of computing technology in this field [4].
Another important factor to consider is that, although various commercially available
sport performance services and software have emerged (e.g., Sports CodeTM , DartfishTM ,
Kandle SnapperTM , OptaTM , ProzoneTM , Sports.VideoTM , FocusTM , among others), these
tools often remain isolated in their analysis, highlighting the growing need for integrated
and synchronized evaluation tools. Limitations of traditional methods necessitate a shift
towards more advanced, efficient, and sophisticated strategies. With the remarkable
advancement of computing technology, a new era has dawned for sports performance
analysis [4]. The ability of computers to process extensive data quickly and accurately, now
complemented by machine learning and AI models, offers a significant enhancement to
this field.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 28
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 5 of 26

Figure 1. Performance Analysis Model. The model depicts a comprehensive methodology for assess-
Figure 1. Performance Analysis Model. The model depicts a comprehensive methodology for as-
ing athlete
sessing performance.
athlete performance. Originating from
Originating sports
from events,
sports events,such
suchas as
training
trainingsessions or or
sessions competitive
competi-
matches, data are harnessed using a range of tools, from video recordings to
tive matches, data are harnessed using a range of tools, from video recordings to wearables. wearables. Historically,
Histor-
sportssports
ically, analysts depended
analysts heavilyheavily
depended on manual data input—a
on manual process that
data input—a was often
process labor-intensive
that was and
often labor-in-
subject to observational biases. In the modern landscape, the focus is shifting towards
tensive and subject to observational biases. In the modern landscape, the focus is shifting towards harnessing the
harnessing the power of integrated systems and Artificial Intelligence. These advanced
power of integrated systems and Artificial Intelligence. These advanced techniques promise height- techniques
promise heightened
ened objectivity, objectivity,
swift swift data
data processing, andprocessing,
the ability and the ability
to apply to in
insights apply
real insights
time. Oncein real time.
gathered,
Once gathered, these data are meticulously transformed to produce actionable
these data are meticulously transformed to produce actionable insights aimed at enhancing athleteinsights aimed at
enhancing athlete performance. These insights can be represented visually or in report format, serv-
performance. These insights can be represented visually or in report format, serving as invaluable
ing as invaluable resources for athletes and coaches. The database section of the model emphasizes
resources for athletes and coaches. The database section of the model emphasizes the adaptability of
the adaptability of data storage solutions, ranging from structured relational databases to diverse
data storageplatforms.
multimedia solutions, ranging
Various from structuredincluding
environments, relational virtual
databasesandtomixed
diverse multimedia
worlds, can beplatforms.
utilized
Various environments, including virtual and mixed worlds, can be utilized
to collect data and deliver data-driven tactical changes or training strategies. to collect data and deliver
data-driven tactical changes or training strategies.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 6 of 26

Table 1. Pros and Cons of the current sport performance analysis.

Method Pros Cons

• Real-time data. • Subjective.

• No need for technology. • Limited to visual
Observational Analysis • Insights into behavior observation.
and tactics. • Lack of precise
quantitative data.

• Detailed and precise • Requires video

analysis. equipment.
• Visual evidence of • Time-consuming.
Video Analysis
actions and techniques. • May not capture all
• Slow-motion and relevant data.
frame-by-frame analysis.

• Quantitative data on
specific events and • Labor-intensive.
actions. • Limited to notated
• Objective record of events.
Notational Analysis
performance. • May require specialized
• Useful for tracking software/tools.
tactical patterns and
player actions.

• Quantifies physical • Requires tracking

demands. equipment and
• Insights into athlete technology.
Time-Motion Analysis workload and fatigue. • Complex data analysis.
• Useful for designing • May not capture all
training and recovery contextual influencing
programs. factors.

• Real-time physiological • Requires wearable

and biomechanical data. devices, which can be
• Comprehensive view of expensive.
Data Analysis from player health and • Data interpretation may
Wearables performance. require specialized
• Data-driven decisions in knowledge.
training and game • Privacy concerns related
strategies. to athlete data collection.

Computers Evaluation and Performance Analysis in Sports

The exponential growth of computationally driven performance analysis is inherently
tied to the widespread adoption of personal computers (PCs) in the late 1980s and 1990s.
During this period, machines became increasingly user-friendly and affordable, in addition
to having expanded capabilities. The introduction of the graphical user interface (GUI)
revolutionized human–computer interaction [74,75]. The rapid growth of the internet in
the 1990s and the development of more efficient and portable laptops further fueled the
widespread adoption of personal computers [76]. By the early 2000s, personal computers
had become a common feature in households, schools, and workplaces across the globe.
Over these years, processing power and storage capabilities have grown exponentially,
along with the miniaturization and portability of devices [77]. The post-PC revolution—
also called the internet of things (IOT) revolution—marked a shift away from traditional
desktop and laptop PCs towards more mobile, convenient, and user-friendly computing
devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices [78]. Connectivity has never
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 7 of 26

been more intricate, due to the rise of wireless internet connectivity and the proliferation of
cloud-based services, which have enabled devices to be always connected, allowing users
to access their data and applications from almost anywhere [79]. The development of web
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) has allowed different software programs to
communicate with each other and share data without requiring the end-user or developers
to understand how the other system works [80]. This has simplified the development
process, as programmers can use APIs to take advantage of functionalities provided by
other software components without having to understand the code of those components.
Moreover, the advent of statistical packages (e.g., SPSS, R), DV packages (e.g., R’s ggplot2),
and general-purpose computer languages (e.g., Python) has given immense power to sports
analysts, enabling the development of standard statistical models to explain events and
predict behavior.
The proliferation of innovative technologies is at times overwhelming and may leave
potential users confused [81,82]. Data acquisition capabilities and the volume of data
collected have grown beyond human interpretation skills and often require other methods
of analysis such as distributed computing, parallel computing, supercomputing, and virtual
system environments. The term “Big Data” was coined to define extremely large and
complex datasets that traditional data processing applications are unable to handle [6,7,83].
Big Data refers not just to the volume of the data, but also to their variety, velocity, and
veracity [6,83,84]. Now, sports analysts have access to complex, multimedia data that can
provide comprehensive insights into an athlete’s performance, presenting an opportunity to
analyze and interpret performance more quickly and with greater depth [5,85,86]. However,
this increase in data complexity and volume has also presented challenges. The sheer scale
of the data means that traditional analysis methods—e.g., linear models, simple statistics, or
coach watching video tape—are no longer sufficient. The Big Data era requires innovative
technologies and methods to effectively harvest the undiscovered sports performance
potential [87]. Each of these technologies offers unique applications that have the potential
to redefine the landscape of sports performance analysis and overcome the challenges
posed by the era of Big Data [5].

4. Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Sports Performance Analysis

4.1. Definition and History
AI is a branch of computer science that is focused on developing systems that can
execute tasks mirroring human intelligence [20]. These tasks include learning from expe-
riences, comprehending natural language, video analysis, recognizing patterns, solving
problems, and decision-making. Although the AI boom of today sees a plethora of new
models being developed daily for a wide array of tasks, the concept of AI is not new. The
theoretical groundwork for a “thinking” machine can be traced back to the 1940s and 1950s.
Inspired by biological neurons, Pitts and McCulloch [88] proposed the McCulloch–Pitts
neuron, a computational model that simplifies the function of a biological neuron into mul-
tiple inputs and a single output. In the 1950s, pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing
posited the concept of a machine capable of imitating human intelligence [89], marking a
significant milestone in the development of AI. This was further advanced by McCarthy
et al. [90], who theorized that every aspect of learning or intelligence could be defined so
precisely that a machine could simulate it, which is considered the birth of AI as a field.
Subsequently, Rosenblatt [91] proposed the Perceptron, which stands as the earliest form of
a neural network capable of learning from its inputs.
Despite these early ground-breaking evolution benchmarks, the progress in develop-
ing modern neural networks was slow. This was largely due to computational limitations
and data scarcity, leading to periods known as “AI winter”, characterized by reduced
funding and interest in AI research [92,93]. The tide turned in the 1980s and 1990s with
the introduction of backpropagation by Geoffrey Hinton and then the emergence of deep
learning in the 2000s and 2010s. These developments have culminated in the creation of the
powerful neural networks we see today, bringing an end to the ‘AI winter’ and propelling
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 8 of 26

AI research to the forefront of technological innovation. Within the context of machine

learning, modern AI systems can process vast amounts of data, identify intricate patterns,
and enhance system performance without the need for explicit programming [94]. Deep
learning, a subset of machine learning, deploys artificial neural networks designed to emu-
late the function of the human brain. Finally, in the 2020s, the proliferation of high-capacity
models, such as the Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT)—the engine that gives life
to ChatGPT—heralded a new era in the AI landscape [95–97]. These large-scale models
demonstrate an unprecedented capacity to generate human-like text, making AI technology
more accessible and usable to the public and not just computer scientists. The success of
these models has stirred a competitive environment among leading tech companies, each
vying to develop and deploy the most advanced AI technologies. This competition not
only spurs technological advancement but also contributes to the popularization of AI
applications in everyday life.

4.2. How AI Can Contribute to Sports Performance Analysis

AI has brought about profound changes across various sectors, including healthcare,
automotive, retail, finance, and entertainment [21,22]. Unsurprisingly, sports performance
analysis has also been profoundly impacted [2,6,14,23,24,98].
The applications of AI in sports performance analysis are vast and diverse, transform-
ing traditional methodologies in data collection, analysis, and interpretation. AI-powered
technologies offer an efficient shift from manual, bias-prone methods to precise data collec-
tion on a large scale. However, AI’s value extends well beyond data collection. Another
strength lies in data processing and interpretation [25]. Modern data collection techniques
often generate enormous volumes of data, beyond human capabilities to handle and digest.
AI addresses this challenge by automating data analysis, akin to data mining, identify-
ing patterns and trends that might be overlooked [94]. This analytical process not only
reduces data volume but also can uncover hidden patterns, providing valuable insights
for performance enhancement and strategy planning. Furthermore, AI’s learning capacity
from past data significantly bolsters its predictive abilities, yielding increasingly insightful
interpretations over time.
AI applications have the potential to enhance traditional sports performance anal-
ysis methodologies. It has enabled video analysis to become faster, more precise, and
comprehensive, supplanting time-consuming and potentially biased manual reviews [99].
Through machine learning algorithms, computer vision can detect and track players and
objects, analyze movements, and extract real-time information [100]. These techniques offer
a detailed understanding of player movements, team formations, and tactics, significantly
enriching strategic planning. These algorithms can also discern patterns in an opposing
team’s play, providing valuable insights for competitive strategy planning which traditional
methods, reliant on subjective human analysis, may not capture. AI also can be used for the
recognition of specific sports movements [14], which can be used for implementing semi-
automatic and automatic systems. Furthermore, computer vision’s capabilities extend into
injury prevention and rehabilitation, analyzing player movement biomechanics, identifying
potentially harmful patterns, and suggesting technique modifications or training regimen
adjustments [101,102]. AI-powered computer vision techniques considerably expand the
scope and depth of performance analysis in sports, promoting precise strategic planning,
enhancing player safety, and improving overall team performance.
AI holds impressive potential to streamline notational analysis, enhancing both its
efficiency and accuracy by automating the intricate process of recognizing and annotat-
ing discrete events. For instance, machine learning and computer vision algorithms can
accurately detect and note instances of specific actions [103,104], such as assists in soccer,
basketball throws, or swimming techniques [61,105,106]. Furthermore, AI can handle and
scrutinize vast quantities of data, offering comprehensive insights into the effectiveness of
tactics, strategies, and player actions. For example, AI could analyze thousands of hours of
game footage to determine the success rate of a particular strategy or tactic [107]. Similarly,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 9 of 26

AI has the potential to revolutionize time-motion analysis, making it more efficient and
predictive, thereby becoming a far more effective tool for evaluating players’ physical per-
formance. AI algorithms can analyze athletes’ movements during a game, provide real-time
insights into their energy expenditure, and predict fatigue levels, leading to better player
substitution strategies. Finally, the role of AI in analyzing data from wearable devices has
been transformative, offering real-time, predictive, and personalized sports performance
analysis. For example, wearable devices coupled with AI can track an athlete’s heart rate,
speed, and oxygen levels in real time, predict potential health risks based on past data, and
suggest personalized training programs to optimize performance and recovery [108]. In
this way, AI offers an unprecedented leap forward in the field of sports science.
AI’s insights are not merely theoretical; they have practical applications in real-world
scenarios, influencing field strategies and becoming a transformative force in the sports
sector [109]. AI’s predictive capabilities play a pivotal role in injury prevention, with
algorithms assessing data from wearable devices to predict potential injury risks and
recommend appropriate training modifications [101].
Over the years, the integration of AI technology into sports analysis has led to a
growing number of products catering to various solutions. Examples include GPS-based
systems, video analysis tools, and motion tracking solutions like those offered by Catapult
SportsTM , STATSportsTM , HudlTM , Second SpectrumTM , ShotTrackerTM , and KINEXONTM .
These innovations have significantly expanded the options available for coaches, athletes,
and analysts in their pursuit of data-driven performance improvements.
Below we have listed the main points where AI can transform current sports perfor-
mance analysis:
• Data Collection: AI transforms traditional data collection methods into precise, large-
scale processes, reducing manual bias.
• Advanced Data Analysis: AI automates data analysis, identifying hidden patterns
and trends within large datasets for performance enhancement and strategy planning.
• Enhanced Video Analysis: AI-driven video analysis is faster, more precise, and more
comprehensive than manual reviews, offering insights into player movements, team
formations, and tactics.
• Notational Analysis: AI streamlines notational analysis by automating the recognition
and annotation of specific actions, improving both efficiency and accuracy.
• Time-Motion Analysis: AI revolutionizes time-motion analysis by providing real-
time insights into athlete energy expenditure and fatigue levels, leading to better
player substitution strategies.
• Wearable Device Data Analysis: AI analyzes real-time data from wearable devices,
predicting potential health risks and suggesting personalized training programs.
• Injury Prevention: AI in computer vision analyzes player biomechanics, identifies
harmful patterns, and suggests technique modifications, enhancing player safety.

5. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) in Sports Performance Analysis
5.1. Definition and History
VR is a technology that immerses users in computer-generated environments, tran-
scending the boundaries of physical reality and enhancing users’ experiences and engage-
ment, including visual, auditory, and tactile cues [28,110]. It encompasses various system
categories, including Non-Immersive, Semi-Immersive Projection, and Fully Immersive
systems [110]. On the other hand, AR can be defined as a dynamic fusion of the virtual and
real, seamlessly integrating virtual entities within real-world environments in real time,
enabling users to interact with both domains [29,111,112].
The concept of VR has its origins dating back to the 1960s when Morton Heilig,
an American cinematographer, created the Sensorama—a mechanical device aimed at
providing a multisensory experience through stereoscopic 3D images, sounds, smells, and
even vibrations [113]. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Ivan Sutherland developed what is
often considered the first true head-mounted display (HMD) system, called the “Sword of
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 10 of 26

Damocles” [114]. However, it was not until the 1980s and 1990s that VR technology began
to take a more concrete shape with advancements in computer graphics, display technology,
and interaction devices. In fact, the term “virtual reality” was only coined in the 1990s by
Jaron Lanier [115]. Also, in the 1990s, the Computer Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE)
systems were introduced, offering a fully immersive environment [116]. This technology
enables users to fully experience and interact with 3D computer-generated environments
within a spacious cube formed by multiple display screens. As users physically enter
this projection cube, they become fully enveloped by the virtual environment and a more
natural and realistic sense of being [34].
Similarly, the AR concept dates back to the 1950s, with the term being coined by
Tim Caudell and David Mizell in 1990 [110,117]. AR systems can be head-mounted see-
through and monitor-based video systems [110,111]. While there are some conceptual
differences between VR and AR, both technologies share a common goal: enhancing user
experiences by extending possibilities beyond the physical world through seamless and
harmonious interactions [29,110]. In fact, some argue that both should be enclosed by the
same comprehensive framework under the term ‘XR’, where X works as a placeholder for
any reality [33,110].
It is evident that the development of both VR and AR relies on an inherent relationship
with emerging technologies. As a result, the extensive utilization of these technologies
hinges on the commercial availability of the associated devices. In recent decades, sig-
nificant progress has been made in the VR and AR landscape, leading to the creation of
a variety of devices catering to different levels of immersion and functionality (Table 2).
From the pioneering attempts of SEGA VR and Google Glass, to the more recent Microsoft
HoloLens and Meta Quest 2 & 3, and the recently introduced Apple Vision Pro, these
devices have the power to transform how we perceive and interact with both the virtual
and real worlds, paving the way for innovative applications in fields such as medicine and
physiotherapy [118–122], manufacturing [31,123], entertainment [31,124], exercise [125,126],
and education [124,127–129].
It is evident that sports performance analysis also benefited from the development
and convergence of VR and AR, opening a new realm of possibilities to enhance training,
skill development, and overall athletic performance [30,32–34].

Table 2. Commercially widely available VR and AR devices across recent years.

Augmented Reality (AR) Virtual Reality (VR)

• Wearable AR device
with head-mounted • Low-cost VR viewer
display made from
Google Glass • Hands-free access to Google cardboard
(2013) digital information Cardboard (2014) • Designed for use
• Interaction with with smartphones
virtual elements in
real world

• Overlays interactive • VR headsets

Microsoft holographic images designed for
Zeiss VR One different
HoloLens • Enhances
(2014) applications
(2016) productivity and
collaboration • Quality optics and
ergonomic design
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 11 of 26

Table 2. Cont.

Augmented Reality (AR) Virtual Reality (VR)

• VR headset
• AR system developed in
superimposing collaboration with
Magic Leap One virtual objects Samsung Gear VR
Oculus
(2018) • Improved field of (2015)
• Designed for
view and interaction Samsung
smartphones

• Upgraded version • VR headset offering

with improved immersive
features experiences
Microsoft Oculus Rift
• Catering to • Tracks head and
HoloLens 2 (2019) (2016)
enterprise and hand movements
creative applications • Focus mainly on
gaming

• High-quality
• Mix of AR and VR immersion with
Apple Vison PRO • Purely HTC Vive motion tracking
(2023) hand-tracking (2016) • Motion-sensing
controllers for
interaction

• VR headset for
PlayStation gaming
PlayStation VR consoles
(2016) • Bringing VR to a
broader gaming
audience

• Standalone VR
Oculus Quest headset
(2019) • No need for external
sensors or PC

• High-end VR
system with precise
Valve Index tracking
(2019) • Finger-tracking
controllers and
quality visuals

• Standalone VR
headset
Meta
• No need for external
Quest 2
sensors or PC
(2020)
• Upgrade from the
Oculus Quest
• Mix of AR and VR
Apple Vison PRO
• Purely
(2023)
hand-tracking

5.2. How VR and AR Can Contribute to Sports Performance Analysis

VR and AR technologies hold immense promise for revolutionizing sports coach-
ing, training, and performance analysis. These technologies are reshaping traditional
methodologies [26–28,130,131], with a primary focus on coaching, training, and skill en-
hancement [30,32–34].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 12 of 26

By harnessing VR and AR, sports professionals can create immersive environments

that optimize athlete performance in various ways [35–37]. These include improving
team dynamics, refining individual skills, and minimizing injury risks through preventive
and rehabilitative models [132]. These technologies serve as invaluable training tools,
allowing for strategy refinement, tactic development, and real-time response practice
within meticulously controlled environments [30,133–135].
In fact, VR can recreate environments to challenge training by manipulating constraints
in complex and dynamic situations, thus creating specific repeatable scenarios [33,36]. On
the other hand, AR can provide real-time information for athletes, acting as an assistant
coach. It also offers benefits to coaches and players alike [136–138]. Athletes benefit
by receiving real-time feedback and performance data displayed directly in their field
of vision, empowering them to make on-the-fly adjustments during training sessions.
Coaches, meanwhile, leverage AR’s capabilities to dissect game strategies, visualizing
virtual markers and lines that offer insights into positioning and tactics. Even for spectators,
AR enriches the viewing experience by overlaying live broadcasts with dynamic graphics
and statistics, providing deeper insights into the game [136,139,140].
Both VR and AR can provide immersive experiences, transporting athletes to metic-
ulously crafted simulated settings, such as virtual arenas or controlled training config-
urations. This can be achieved using different levels and setups, ranging from the use
of 360-degree VR, real-world video footage of a particular environment that has been
pre-recorded, to animated VR, computer-rendered images that change in accordance with
users’ actions [132,135,141,142]. In the latter, environments can intricately replicate sensory
inputs and physical sensations, allowing athletes to fine-tune their abilities and decision-
making processes in a manner that provides instantaneous feedback and promotes skill
refinement [36,143].
This dynamic interaction between the world of sports and the virtual realm brings
forth an unprecedented avenue for learning and advancement [132]. However, the effec-
tiveness of VR technology in sports is influenced by a myriad of factors that determine
its applicability in real-world scenarios. These factors, ranging from reaction time and
anticipation to expertise level and environmental context, must be methodically measured
and comprehended to maximize the potential of virtual training. The interplay of these vari-
ables plays a pivotal role in shaping how athletes respond to the diverse events presented
within virtual scenarios.
While promising, it is important to point out that VR training is not useful or practical
for training in all sports; for example, water sports such as swimming cannot be trained in
virtual environments. The current state of technology also makes it challenging to simulate
training for skills relying on highly accurate haptic feedback and multiplayer interactions.
The technical limitations and the costs associated with the creation of virtual training
environments pose a significant barrier to uptake in VR sports training [30]. Moreover, the
acceptance of the technology by coaches seems to be the biggest barrier [144,145]. Further-
more, the skill transfer from the virtual to the real world is still under debate [30], and a
small evidence base supports its use in enhancing athletic performance [32]. However, the
debate on using VR in rehabilitation settings has grown substantially recently [118,146–148],
suggesting that virtual environments can be useful from this perspective.
When considering the potential of AR in sports, an intriguing avenue emerges [137,149].
While VR often transports athletes to entirely virtual environments, AR enhances the real
world by overlaying digital information onto the physical surroundings [111]. This tech-
nology can be harnessed to provide real-time data, statistics, and visual cues directly into
an athlete’s field of view. Imagine a soccer player receiving instant tactical insights while
on the field or a cyclist having crucial performance metrics displayed on their glasses. AR
holds the potential to offer athletes immediate access to valuable information, enhancing
decision-making and overall performance.
While the applications of VR and AR in sports have predominantly focused on physi-
cal training [150–153], a vast uncharted domain with substantial potential lies in harnessing
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 13 of 26

these technologies to cultivate cognitive awareness and psychological readiness. By vi-

sualizing performance data and creating simulated scenarios, athletes can enhance their
cognitive grasp of the sport, hone their decision-making skills, and develop mental forti-
tude for high-pressure situations. This unexplored territory represents a promising frontier
for technology-enabled athlete development, bridging the gap between physical prowess
and mental acuity.
Below we have listed the main points where VR and AR can transform current sport
performance analysis:
• Creating Immersive Coaching and Training Environments: VR and AR technologies
immerse athletes in realistic training scenarios, providing real-time coaching feedback.
• Skill and Strategy Development: These technologies offer interactive, repeatable
scenarios that challenge and refine athletes’ skills. Also, to visualize game scenarios,
positioning, and tactics in a comprehensive and interactive manner.
• Delivering Tactical Insights: AR overlays digital information onto the physical envi-
ronment, assisting athletes in making strategic decisions during gameplay.
• Providing Real-time Athlete Feedback: Athletes receive immediate feedback and
performance data in their field of vision, allowing adjustments during training.
• Facilitating Data-Driven Decision-Making: Coaches and athletes can make informed
decisions by accessing comprehensive performance metrics and tactical insights.
• Supporting Rehabilitation: VR and AR can be used for aiding in injury prevention
and rehabilitation.
• Bridging the Gap Between Physical and Mental Preparedness: VR and AR develop
cognitive awareness and psychological readiness, complementing physical training
for high-pressure situations.
• Visualizing Performance Data: VR and AR help athletes better understand perfor-
mance data, enhancing their decision-making and mental acuity.
• Enriching Spectator Experiences: AR enhances the viewing experience for spectators
by overlaying live broadcasts with dynamic graphics and statistics, providing deeper
insights into the game.

6. Data Visualization (DV) in Sports Performance Analysis

6.1. Definition and History
“A picture is worth a thousand words”.
DV is a multifaceted process encompassing the representation of data and information
through visual elements, such as charts, graphs, and maps [87]. This approach aims to
translate intricate datasets into visually accessible formats, thereby facilitating compre-
hensibility and insight extraction [87]. A good DV goes beyond the use of graphics; it
is an attempt to represent and digest complex data into an easily graspable figure, often
requiring just a single glance while also producing a complete narrative for the represented
event [40,154].
Just like a skilled storyteller, DV creates a detailed story, guiding the viewer’s attention
to meaningful insights. DV relies upon the innate human capacity to discern patterns and
relationships from visual stimuli [155]. Thus, DV emerges as a productive instrument for
imparting data-driven information. In fact, DV is the first step during the exploratory
data analysis process, conducting the dataset summarization, discovering patterns, and
identifying trends or anomalies [87,156]. It is helpful to understand the main character-
istics of the data, such as their distribution, relationships between variables, potential
outliers, and hypothesis generation, before proceeding with more formal statistical analysis
or modelling.
William Playfair—a Scottish engineer and political economist—is often considered
the ‘father of data visualization.’ He introduced several fundamental concepts in statistical
graphics, including the line chart, bar chart, and pie chart, during the late 1800s, establishing
the groundwork for the primary DV techniques that we extensively use today [157,158].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 14 of 26

Advances in computer technology have significantly enhanced DV techniques, allow-

ing for the creation of more intricate and interactive visual representations, and enabling
deeper exploration and understanding of complex datasets [156]. Nowadays, there is
a diverse off-the-shelf repertoire of visualization techniques (as shown in Table 2), each
possessing distinctive attributes that render them ideally suited to highlight different as-
pects of the dataset. Powerful DV can be created using standalone products (such as
Tableau, Power BI, and Google Data Studio) or programmatically using different pack-
ages for different technologies (for example, D3.js, matplotlib, Seaborn, Plotly, ggplot2,
R Shiny) [159,160]. Moreover, those techniques can be combined to create comprehen-
sive dashboards—interactive interfaces that offer consolidated insights, allowing moni-
toring of real-time metrics and making informed decisions across various domains—and
infographics—condensing complex information into visually appealing graphics, aiding in
easy comprehension of data-driven narratives. While dashboards provide dynamic views
of changing data, infographics distill static information into engaging visuals [161–165].

6.2. How DV Can Contribute to the Sports Performance Analysis Traditional Methodology
DV can simplify complex data by presenting it in easily understandable visuals [156,160,166].
Its primary objective is to extract valuable insights from a dataset, equipping coaches,
athletes, and analysts with the tools to make informed decisions based on data patterns
and trends [161,167–169]. While traditional statistics struggled to capture the intricacies of
athletic performance, visualizations such as heatmaps, scatter plots, and motion paths have
unveiled hidden insights [163,170,171]. For example, heatmaps vividly display an athlete’s
movements on the field, enabling coaches to identify tactics and positioning strategies.
DV transcends numerical data to weave captivating narratives. With meticulous data
preparation and modelling, it crafts visuals that grant players, coaches, officials, analysts,
and fans a more profound and immersive grasp of the game and performance. As described
by Perin et al. [156], various types of data can be collected, including box-score data,
tracking data, and meta-data, each offering new narratives for in-depth exploration, such
as dissecting tracking data, showcasing events, trajectories, and player perspectives, and
further enriching them with specific information and graphical representations. Notable
examples demonstrate the breadth of data collected, including court views, temporal event
sequences, player shot patterns, and textual play-by-play analysis [172,173].
The foundation of powerful DV lies in primary sports data—a goldmine sourced from
wearables, tracking systems, and video recordings. These data encompass player positions,
velocities, heart rates, distances covered, shot attempts, and much more. To craft effective
DV, the raw data must undergo meticulous cleaning and organization to ensure accuracy
and meaningful visual representations. Subsequently, various DV techniques come into
play to convey specific insights. For instance, soccer tracking data translate into heatmaps
that vividly depict player positions, with color-coding revealing activity levels. Sprint
speeds, shot accuracies, and endurance levels emerge through scatter plots, line charts, and
bar graphs. These visualizations empower coaches to grasp player performance and its
evolution over time.
DV also leverages historical data to create trend lines, allowing teams to identify
strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. By comparing past and present data,
coaches and analysts gain profound insights into teams and individual players. Real-time
statistics presented in dynamic dashboards facilitate better decision-making during games.
Additionally, based on historical trends, individual player performance, and current team
data, predictions about overall performance, player contributions, and team selections can
be made.
Below we have listed the main points where DV can transform current sport perfor-
mance analysis:
• Simplified Data Interpretation: DV simplifies complex performance data, making it
more understandable.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 15 of 26

• Valuable Insights: It helps extract valuable insights from extensive datasets, enabling
data-driven decision-making in sports.
• Tactical Analysis: Heatmaps, motion paths, and other visualizations enable coaches
to analyze player movements, tactics, and positioning strategies effectively.
• Narrative Power: DV goes beyond numbers, crafting visual narratives that empower
coaches, athletes, and analysts to uncover deeper insights.
• Real-Time Decision-Making: Dynamic dashboards with real-time statistics assist
coaches and analysts in making better decisions during games, benefiting data-driven
broadcasting.
• Historical Data Trends: DV helps in identifying historical trends, strengths, and
weaknesses, aiding teams in strategic planning and player selection.
• Predictive Analytics: DV can enable predictions about overall performance, individ-
ual player contributions, and team selections based on historical and current data.

7. Discussion
The primary goal of this paper was to examine the pivotal role that continuously
emerging technologies such as AI, VR, AR, and DV play in improving sports performance
analysis. These technologies have undergone extensive development over the last three
decades, particularly in the fields of computer science techniques, miniaturization, and
processing power [4,43]. Technological advancements have impacted sports performance
analysis in various ways, including data acquisition, processing, and reporting [4,43].
Additionally, due to the availability of new measurement devices (e.g., higher-resolution
cameras and wearable sensors) [47–51,57], the volume, variety, and velocity of data have
also increased [5]. The era of Big Data presents exciting challenges for sports analysts, with
one of the major hurdles being the processing of vast multimedia data, and translating them
into practical, applied, and valuable information [5,174]. Ultimately, it is this information
that will be communicated to various stakeholders, including athletes, coaches, delegates,
and the media.
Quality information can lead to valuable insights, and valuable insights can contribute
to achieving goals. These goals can primarily be addressed through training and improving
performance, necessitating a continuous cycle of data measurement and processing [4,43].
Therefore, as technological boundaries continue to expand, it is paramount to understand
how these individual tools support coaches and enhance athletic performance. When
used synergistically, they create unparalleled potential for optimizing performance and
decision-making. Getting coaches and athletes to use the innovations may be the most
difficult challenge facing performance analysts.
The interrelation of AI, VR, AR, and DV creates a comprehensive platform for sports
performance analysis. AI serves as the backbone for data collection, advanced data
analysis, enhanced video, and notational, time-motion, and wearable data analysis ef-
ficiency [2,25,61,94,98,105,106]. Powerful AI tools can be used for injury prediction and
prevention, empowering analysts’ work by increasing processing speed, and offering pre-
dictive analytics and real-time feedback. VR and AR, on the other hand, provide immersive
coaching and training experiences, as well as real-time data superimposition [32,33]. Used
correctly, VR and AR can enhance skills and strategies, deliver tactical insights, facilitate
data-driven decisions, and support rehabilitation and mental training. Lastly, DV tech-
niques simplify data, leading to insights and tactical analysis. They enhance narrative
power, which is crucial when translating data into information for real-time decisions and
historical predictions.
While these technologies individually contribute to the realm of sports performance
analysis, their true power emerges when they are used synergistically and integrated. In
fact, AI, VR, AR, and DV naturally interplay and form an intrinsic integration, which can be
translated into an explicit framework. We propose that AI assumes the central role, serving
as the hub for comprehensive data management, encompassing collection, processing,
modelling, and storage. Ultimately, AI models and systems can handle various tasks within
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 16 of 26

the proposed sports performance model. The capability to address a specific task will
depend on the available tools and models for analysis. However, at least theoretically,
almost any task can be implemented given sufficient time and resources. The encouraging
news is that one does not need to master all the techniques; APIs can be employed to
manage different data types. Companies can specialize in different tasks and sports
modalities, offering APIs as a service, which benefits analysts and sports institutions. We
would like to emphasize that AI has the potential to enhance any kind of video analysis.
Historically, video analysis has been a massive and time-consuming task. Properly trained
AI models can identify and analyze movement patterns as effectively as a human being,
saving a significant amount of work hours [107].
Regarding VR and AR, although they have primarily been used for training purposes,
they also serve as sources of data. AI models can interact in real-time with virtual envi-
ronments to alter rendering or provide instant feedback. In this sense, AI components
orchestrate interactions, track objects within the virtual space, predict collision outcomes,
and guide intelligent decision-making processes. Continuously updating object positions,
analyzing collisions, making informed choices, and coordinating audio-visual cues, the AI
system forms the bedrock of the intricate XR experience [28]. Consider a scenario where a
soccer player is practicing free kicks; both VR and AR can be applied. VR can be utilized
for environment recognition, such as 360-degree videos, or simulation. The simulation may
incorporate a progression model to address the athlete’s unique challenges or simulate
upcoming competitions. Meanwhile, AR can be employed in the field. HMD see-through
devices can be used during athlete training. AR can deliver goals and data feedback, includ-
ing ball speed, goal sector heatmaps, and the best sports to target. Commercial solutions
(see Table 2) can be used as a platform to deliver those applications. Also, AR can help to
overlay graphical information on real video footage, being used as a coaching/discussion
tool and then improving the storytelling as well.
Lastly, in this ecosystem, DV techniques play a crucial role in simplifying complex data.
Even non-technical individuals know the phrase ‘A picture is worth a thousand words’.
Vision is one of the most powerful human senses, and it should be used to deploy better
representations than just numbers [87]. AI can create pre-programmed DVs (see Table 3)
that analysts can check for insights. Ultimately, VR and AR rely on DV if we consider
3D rendering and object overlaying DV techniques. DV transforms raw information into
actionable insights and facilitates tactical analysis. DV’s unique narrative power becomes
particularly valuable when translating data into practical information for real-time decision-
making and historical performance predictions. In fact, visualization techniques support
exploratory data analysis tasks. Plots and charts allow researchers to identify meaningful
variables, dense regions, correlations, patterns, missing data, and outliers [40,87,154].
Modern technologies bring visualizations to life, making them interactive and powered by
standalone commercial software or specialized solutions developed through programming.
Both approaches offer the option to export reports that can be accessed by coaches, who do
not need to comprehend the statistical processing of the data but can focus on digesting
the information presented in those reports. Since visualizations are interactive, coaches
can manipulate variables to update the visualizations and explore new insights based
on the data [162,167]. For example, Vinué [164] demonstrated a web-based system for
the interactive visualization of basketball games; Lage et al. [163] for baseball data and
table tennis [165]. The ability to communicate effectively between the coaching staff and
the analysts is vital when determining the approach for performance analysis [71]. An
analyst does not need to master all the technologies; however, they must demonstrate
technical proficiency and strong analytical, adaptability, and communication skills. As
with any emerging technology, there will be proponents and opponents. In the case of
the described technological environment for coaching, one might wonder exactly what
the role is of the coach. Have technological advances eliminated the need for coaches?
Can all these technologies be used simultaneously, and if so, to what advantage? Is
optimizing performance the true end-goal of sports? To answer some of these questions,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
overload and incorrect use of the software. These must also be considered prior to 17
theoffull-
28
Table 3. Data visualization definitions and examples.
scale implementation of technological solutions to performance enhancement in sports.
Type Definition Usage Example
Table 3. Data
allocation visualization
in cases wheredefinitions
something and examples.
goes wrong with the technology, such as training
A simple
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
overload 17full-
of 28
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 Typeand incorrect
chart where
Definition use of the software. UsageThese must also be considered Example prior to the 17 of 26
scale implementationrectangular
A simple of technological solutions to performance enhancement in sports.
To compare the
bars
chartrepresent
where
Table 3.
allocationData visualization
in cases velocity
definitions
where something of dif-
and examples.
goes wrong with the technology, such as training
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEWBar Chart
one can turndata points,
rectangular
to the Europeanferent Union and their consideration of the legal use of 17 AI in
of 28
overload and incorrect use of theTosoftware. players
compareThese the must also be considered prior to the full-
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sports bars
While used
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scale implementation or
of technological competitors.
velocity of dif- to performance enhancement in sports.
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use AI dif-
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chart catego-
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technology, suchis as
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training heart
the
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the
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sion.during
frequency of a
Scatter points on two cer player’s dis-
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distribution match.
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Plot axes, helpful tance covered
gram oftwo variables. swimmer’s
a continu-
for showing and their heart
A chart
ous dataset that To illustrate
training ses- the
the relation- rate during a
displays
into bins or the frequency
sion. of
ship between match.
Histo- distribution lap times in a
two variables.
gram of a continu- swimmer’s
A chart that To illustrate the
ous dataset training ses-
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into bins or sion.
Histo- distribution lap times in a
gram of a continu- swimmer’s
ous dataset training ses-
into bins or sion.
 Chart derstand
suitable the
line chartfor but lete during pe-
data’s
showing fre-cu- riod of training
with the area To illustrate the
quency
mulative distri-
data (e.g., a month)
intervals,
beneath the internal work-
bution.
or stacked
Area used
line to un-
filled, load of an ath-
Similar
values.
derstand tothe a
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 Chart suitable for lete during pe- 18 of 26
line chart
A graphical
data’s fre-cu-but
showing riod of training
with thedistri-
representa-
quency area To illustrate the
mulative data (e.g., a month)
beneath
tion
bution. of thethe internal work-
Table 3. Cont. or stacked
Area line filled, To summarize
load of an ath-
data’s
Similar
values. sum-
to a
Type Box
Chart Plot
Definitionsuitable for the
lete
Usage volleyball
during pe- Example
Amary
line chart
graphicalstatis- but
(Box- showing cu- player’s
riod of serve
training
tics, including
with the area
representa- To illustrate the
and-to a line chart
Similar mulative data accuracy.
(e.g., a month) Box-
butWhisker
with the area the
beneath
tion median,
of the the internal
To illustrate the work-
internal
or stacked and To summarize plot makes it
beneath quartiles,
Area the line filled,
line
data’s filled,
sum- workloadload of anofathlete
an ath-
Area Chart Plot) Plot values.
Box easier
the to find
volleyball
suitable
Chartfor showing outliers,
suitable
mary statis-forduring period
lete duringof training pe-
(Box- data A
cumulative or graphical (e.g., outliers.
player’s serve
providing
showing
tics, including cu- in- a month)
riod of training
stacked
and- values. representa-
sights
mulative
the median,into data the accuracy.
(e.g., a month)
Box-
Whisker tion
data’s of thespread. plot makes it
A graphical or stacked
quartiles, and To summarize
Plot) data’s sum- easier to find
Athematrix-like
values.
Box Plot ofoutliers,
representation the volleyball
data’s mary
summary providing statis- To outliers.
(Box- Arepresenta-
graphical in-summarize
player’s the servear-
To highlight
Box Plot tics,
statistics, including theincluding
tion ofinto volleyball
datathe player’s
eas where serve
a
and- representa-
sights accuracy. Box-
(Box-and-Whisker Plot) median, quartiles, the andmedian, accuracy. Boxplot makes it
Whisker
outliers, providing using
tion of colors
data’s spread. the player
easier to plot spent
makes it
findsummarize
outliers.
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insights into the A tomatrix-like
indicate
data’s
data’s sum- the most
easier to findtime,
Heatmap
Box Plot outliers, the volleyball
spread. values,
mary
representa- help-
statis- indicating
To highlight
outliers. their
ar-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW(Box- providing in- player’s serve 19 of 28
ful for
tics, of
tion visual-
including
data preferred
eas where a posi-
and-
A matrix-like sights into the accuracy. Box-
izing
the
using relation-
median,
colors tions on
player spentthe
representation
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plotareas makes where it a
using colors to ships
quartiles,
indicate in a ta-
and
to indicateplayer spent field.
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Heatmap Plot)
Heatmap A matrix-like easier to find
values, helpful for ble.
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values, help-indicating Plottheir
indicatingthe age,
preferredtheir
representa-
visualizing relationships positions
outliers.
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the field. ar-
providing
ful for visual- in- height,
To compare
preferred and posi- the
in a table. tion
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into the eas
weight where
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Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEWHeatmap A
ble.matrix-like To compare the agility, 19 of 28
Like a scatter
values, help- indicating
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Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW ning training 20 of 28
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 leading up to 19 of 26
the event.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 28
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Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW a barbetween possession
ball team. be- 20 of 28
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on the observations the
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thoughts frequently
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this paper. analysis
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(e.g.,intelligent transform
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into valuable
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alysts). This information,
dataset. the guiding
modalities.
highlights future the the
potential
match. definition of goals new
for designing for performance improvement.
intelligent systems for dif-
We canmodalities.
ferent observe how the use of new technologies can enhance connections and the speed
of8.communication
Conclusions with all the entities involved in the process (e.g., athletes, coaches, an-
Based on the observations of this study, we propose a performance analysis model
alysts).
8. This
The
Conclusions
that encompasseshighlights
future of all
sports
thetheperformance
future potential
technologies analysis,
discussed for designing
supported new
by the
in this paper. intelligent
integration
This systems
of AI,
theoretical for
VR,dif-
model AR,
can
and
ferent
helpTheDV, holds
modalities.
visualize
futuretheimmense
intricate
of sports promise. While
path of data
performance significant
across various
analysis, progress
supported has
sections
by thebeen
and made, the journey
AI, VR,is
how theyoftransform
integration
onlyand
into
AR, justDV,
beginning.
valuable information,
holds With continued
immense guiding
promise. research,
the definition
While collaboration,
of goals
significant forand
progress innovation,
performance
has thethe
zenith
improvement.
been made, jour-of
8.
ney Conclusions
data-driven,
We is canonly
observetechnologically
how the useWith
just beginning. enhanced
of new sports
technologies
continued performance
can enhance
research, is on the horizon.
connections
collaboration, and the speed
and innovation, the
zenithThe future of sports
of communication
of data-driven, with performance
all analysis, sports
the entitiesenhanced
technologically involved supported by the
(e.g.,integration
in the performance
process athletes,
is of AI, VR,
coaches,
on the horizon. an-
9. Future Directions
AR, and This
alysts). DV, holds immense
highlights promise.
the future While for
potential significant
designingprogress has been made,
new intelligent systems thefor
jour-
dif-
ney
9. isDrawing
only
Future
ferent justupon the concepts
beginning.
Directions
modalities. Withwe have discussed,
continued research, wecollaboration,
propose an integrated performance
and innovation, the
analysis
zenith of model (Figure
data-driven, 1) that not
technologicallyonly encompasses
enhanced traditional
sports data
performance assessment
is on the techniques
horizon.
Drawing upon the concepts we have discussed, we propose an integrated perfor-
but
8. also expands to incorporate the diverse technologies we have explored here. This model
Conclusions
mance analysis model (Figure 1) that not only encompasses traditional data assessment
9.maintains
Future
techniques
the primary objective of performance analysis: enhancing athletes’ performance.
The Directions
future of sports
but also expands performance analysis,
to incorporate supported
the diverse by the integration
technologies we have of AI, VR,
explored
However, it goes further by detailing the seamless flow of data throughout various stages
AR, Drawing uponimmense
and DV, holds the concepts we have
promise. Whilediscussed,
significantwe propose
progress has anbeen
integrated
made, theperfor-
jour-
mance
ney is analysis
only justmodel (Figure
beginning. With1) that not only
continued encompasses
research, traditional
collaboration, anddata assessment
innovation, the
techniques but also expands
zenith of data-driven, to incorporate
technologically the sports
enhanced diverseperformance
technologiesis we have
on the explored
horizon.

9. Future Directions
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12965 20 of 26

of this process. Additionally, it underscores the pivotal role of sports analysts as the
convergence point for data processing. It is worth noting that the analyst plays a central
role in extracting key performance indicators, a concept applicable to both traditional
and emerging approaches. As mentioned earlier, traditional methods possess historical
validity and specific strengths, yet they are not without their limitations. We advocate for a
shift towards adopting new techniques that leverage AI, intelligent systems, automation,
and integrated tools. Analysts should have the capacity to harness readily available
commercial solutions and, when needed, develop bespoke computer programs. Investing
resources in building a proficient analyst team comprising programmers, data scientists,
and database management experts can provide a competitive advantage to sports teams.
However, it is essential to emphasize that a more complex analyst team should not equate
to more complex reports. The overarching objective should remain consistent: transforming
data into actionable information. This information must be useful in accelerating athlete
performance and serve as the foundation for informed decision-making by coaches and
athletes. The swifter data is transformed into actionable insights, the more rapidly training
and competition events can be adjusted to align with specific goals. In this context, different
environments, including virtual and mixed-reality worlds, can be utilized to deliver training
strategies. We encourage professionals to use this model as a starting point for building
new solutions and conducting studies in the field of sports performance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.R.A.C. and L.K.; formal analysis, V.R.A.C., D.C., R.J.H.
and L.K.; investigation, V.R.A.C., D.C., R.J.H. and L.K.; writing—original draft preparation, V.R.A.C.;
writing—review and editing, V.R.A.C., D.C., R.J.H. and L.K.; visualization, V.R.A.C.; supervision, L.K.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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