VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

BIG ASSIGNMENT
COURSE: Metrology, Standardization and Certification

Topic 4: Comparators

Mentor: Prof. Nguyen Ngoc Khoat

Executed by Group 4:
1. Đỗ Hoàng Vũ - 18071549
2. Vũ Quang Huy - 18071526
3. Nguyễn Lê Duy - 19071592
4. Trần Đình Hoằng - 19071604
5. Nguyễn Quang Nam - 21070101

HANOI, 4/2024
Table Of Content
Page
Chapter 1 : Overview of Metrology, Standardization, and Certification................1
1.1. Metrology.............................................................................................................1
1.2. Standardization...................................................................................................1
1.3. Certification.........................................................................................................2
1.4. Interrelationship of Concepts............................................................................2
Chapter 2 : Principles and Classification of Comparators........................................3
2.1. Concept of comparators.....................................................................................3
2.2. Principles of operation........................................................................................3
2.3. Classification of comparators............................................................................3
Chapter 3 Circuit Analysis and Applications of Electrical Comparators................6
3.1. Task 1....................................................................................................................6
3.2. Task 2....................................................................................................................8
3.3. Task 3..................................................................................................................10
Conclusion....................................................................................................................15

Table of Figures

Figure 3.1. Dial Indicator................................................................................................6

Figure 3.2. Profile Projector............................................................................................7
Figure 3.3. LVDT............................................................................................................9
Acknowledgement

We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude and sincere appreciation to

Professor Nguyen Ngoc Khoat, who has been an exceptional mentor and guide
throughout this insightful exploration of metrology, standardization, and certification.
Professor Nguyen Ngoc Khoat's unwavering dedication to imparting knowledge
and fostering a deeper understanding of these vital concepts has been instrumental in
shaping our perspective and equipping us with the necessary skills to navigate the
intricate world of precision measurement and quality control.
We are deeply grateful for the Professor's commitment to creating an engaging
and collaborative learning environment, which has allowed us to not only grasp the
fundamental principles but also explore the real-world applications and cutting-edge
developments in this field.
This course has been a truly transformative journey, and we are immensely
thankful to Professor Nguyen Ngoc Khoat for their unwavering support, mentorship,
and the invaluable insights they have imparted. We are confident that the knowledge
and skills we have gained will be instrumental in our future endeavors, and we look
forward to applying these learnings to make a meaningful contribution in the fields of
engineering, quality assurance, or any other domain where precision and adherence to
standards are paramount.
Once again, our heartfelt gratitude to Professor Nguyen Ngoc Khoat for their
exceptional guidance and for creating an environment that has fostered our growth and
development throughout this course.
 Chapter 1 : Overview of Metrology, Standardization, and Certification

Metrology, standardization, and certification play fundamental roles in ensuring

quality, consistency, and compatibility across industries worldwide. This chapter
explores the concepts, their significance, and how they intertwine with each other.

1.1. Metrology

- Metrology is the scientific study of measurement. It encompasses theoretical

concepts and practical techniques used to establish units of measurement,
develop accurate measurement methods, and calibrate instruments to ensure
reliable results.

Metrology:
 Metrology is the scientific study of measurement, encompassing theoretical
and practical aspects.
 It involves the development and maintenance of measurement standards and
the traceability of measurements to these standards.
 Metrology ensures accurate and consistent results, providing a common
language of measurement across industries.
 It supports trade, enhances product quality, fosters innovation, and enables
effective decision-making.

- Metrology is the scientific study and practice of measurement. It encompasses

all aspects of measurement, including the development of measurement
standards, methods, and techniques, as well as the application of these standards
in various fields such as science, industry, and commerce. The primary goal of
metrology is to ensure that measurements are accurate, reliable, and consistent.

Here's an overview of some key aspects of metrology:

 Measurement Standards : Metrology establishes measurement standards, which

are fundamental references for ensuring uniformity and accuracy in
measurements. These standards can be physical artifacts, like the International
Prototype Kilogram, or defined in terms of natural phenomena, like the speed of
light.

 Traceability : A crucial concept in metrology is traceability, which ensures that

measurements can be linked to recognized standards through an unbroken chain
of calibrations, each contributing to the measurement's accuracy and reliability.

 Measurement Methods and Techniques : Metrology involves the development

and refinement of measurement methods and techniques to ensure accurate and
precise measurements across different domains. This includes techniques such
as optical, mechanical, electrical, and chemical measurements, among others.

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  Instrumentation: Metrology relies on specialized instruments and equipment to
make measurements accurately and reliably. These instruments can range from
simple rulers and thermometers to sophisticated devices like atomic clocks and
electron microscopes.

 Calibration : Calibration is the process of comparing measurements made by an

instrument or system to a known standard to determine its accuracy and
reliability. Regular calibration is essential to ensure that measurement
instruments maintain their accuracy over time.

 Uncertainty Analysis : Metrology also involves assessing and quantifying the

uncertainties associated with measurements. Uncertainty analysis helps
determine the reliability and confidence level of measurement results.

 Legal Metrology : Legal metrology deals with regulations and standards

governing measurements used in trade, commerce, and public safety. This
includes requirements for accurate weighing and measuring devices, such as
scales and gas pumps, to protect consumers and ensure fair trade.

 International Cooperation : Given the global nature of science, industry, and

commerce, international cooperation and standardization are essential in
metrology. Organizations like the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM) and the International Organization of Legal Metrology
(OIML) facilitate collaboration and the development of international
measurement standards.

In summary, metrology plays a vital role in ensuring the reliability, accuracy, and
consistency of measurements across various fields, ultimately underpinning scientific
progress, industrial development, and fair trade.

1.2. Standardization

- Standardization is the process of developing and implementing uniform

technical specifications, guidelines, or characteristics based on industry
consensus. These standards cover products, processes, services, and systems.

Standardization promotes:

 Standardization involves the development, establishment, and implementation

of standards.
 Standards provide guidelines, specifications, and requirements for products,
processes, and services.
 They promote uniformity, compatibility, and interoperability, facilitating
effective communication and exchange.
 Standards cover various aspects, such as dimensions, materials, performance,
safety, and environmental impact.

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  They enhance product quality and safety, facilitate international trade, reduce
costs, promote innovation, and support regulatory compliance.
- Standardization refers to the process of developing, establishing, and
implementing standards to ensure consistency, interoperability, and quality in
products, services, processes, or practices across different domains. Standards
are formalized guidelines or specifications that provide a common framework
for achieving uniformity, reliability, and compatibility. Here's an overview of
standardization:

+)Types of Standards:
- Technical Standards : These specify characteristics and requirements for products,
processes, or services. Technical standards can cover a wide range of areas, including
dimensions, materials, performance, safety, and interoperability.
- Management Standards: These focus on organizational processes and systems, such
as quality management, environmental management, and information security
management.
- Industry Standards: Developed by specific industries or sectors to address unique
requirements and practices within those industries.
- International Standards: Agreed upon by international organizations or consortia
and adopted globally to promote consistency and facilitate international trade and
cooperation.

+) Benefits of Standardization:
- Interoperability: Standards ensure that products and systems from different
manufacturers can work together seamlessly, promoting compatibility and
interoperability.
- Quality Assurance: Standards establish benchmarks for quality, helping
organizations deliver products and services that meet predefined requirements and
customer expectations.
- Safety: Standards often include safety requirements and guidelines, helping to
protect consumers, workers, and the environment.
- Efficiency and Cost Reduction: Standardized processes and practices can streamline
operations, reduce waste, and lower costs through economies of scale.
- Market Access and Global Trade: Compliance with international standards
facilitates market access by ensuring products meet regulatory requirements in
different countries, thereby facilitating global trade.

+) Standardization Bodies and Organizations:

- International Standards Organizations: Organizations such as the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) develop and publish
international standards.
- National Standards Bodies: Each country typically has its own national standards
body responsible for developing and adopting standards relevant to that country's
industries and regulatory requirements.
- Industry Consortia: Industry-specific organizations and consortia develop standards
tailored to the needs and practices of particular industries or sectors.
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+)Standardization Process:
- Initiation: Standards development may be initiated by industry stakeholders,
government agencies, or standards organizations in response to emerging needs,
technological advancements, or regulatory requirements.
- Development: Standards are developed through a consensus-based process
involving stakeholders from relevant industries, academia, government, and consumer
groups.
- Review and Approval: Draft standards undergo rigorous review and validation
before being approved and published.
- Implementation and Compliance: Once published, standards are implemented by
organizations and may be subject to compliance testing and certification to ensure
adherence.

In summary, standardization plays a crucial role in promoting consistency, quality,

safety, and interoperability across various domains, contributing to innovation,
efficiency, and global trade.
1.3. Certification

- Certification is a system where a third-party organization assesses products,

processes, systems, or personnel against established standards. Successfully
meeting the requirements results in the issuance of a certificate.

Certification provides:

 Certification is the process of assessing and confirming compliance with specific

standards or requirements.
 It involves evaluation through audits, inspections, testing, and documentation
reviews by third-party organizations.
 Certification provides assurance that a product, process, or service meets defined
quality, safety, and performance standards.
 It enhances customer confidence, encourages market acceptance, and facilitates
access to new markets.
 Certification may be voluntary or mandatory, depending on the industry or
product.

- Certification is a formal process by which a third-party organization assesses

and confirms that a product, service, process, or system meets specific
requirements or standards. Certification provides assurance to consumers,
clients, regulators, and other stakeholders that the certified entity conforms to
established criteria, demonstrating quality, reliability, safety, or compliance with
regulations. Here's an overview of certification:
+)Types of Certification:
Page 4
 - Product Certification: Ensures that a product meets specified standards or
requirements regarding quality, safety, performance, or environmental impact.
Examples include certifications for electronics, food products, building materials, and
medical devices.
- Management System Certification: Validates that an organization's management
system complies with recognized standards, such as ISO 9001 for quality
management, ISO 14001 for environmental management, ISO 45001 for occupational
health and safety, and ISO/IEC 27001 for information security management.
- Personnel Certification: Certifies individuals based on their knowledge, skills,
competencies, or qualifications in specific professions, industries, or technical areas.
Examples include certifications for project management (PMP), IT professionals (such
as CompTIA certifications), and healthcare professionals (e.g., medical board
certifications).
- Process Certification: Certifies that a particular process or procedure within an
organization meets predefined standards or requirements. This could include
certifications for manufacturing processes, software development methodologies, or
service delivery processes.

+) Benefits of Certification:
- Quality Assurance: Certification provides assurance that products, services, or
processes meet established quality standards, enhancing customer confidence and
satisfaction.
- Regulatory Compliance: Certification demonstrates compliance with regulatory
requirements, helping organizations meet legal obligations and access markets with
specific regulatory requirements.
- Market Access and Competitive Advantage: Certification can be used as a
marketing tool to differentiate products or services, gain a competitive edge, and
access new markets, especially where certification is a prerequisite for market entry.
- Risk Mitigation: Certification helps mitigate risks related to product failures, safety
incidents, non-compliance with regulations, or other quality-related issues.
- Continuous Improvement: Certification standards often require organizations to
implement processes for continuous improvement, leading to enhanced efficiency,
effectiveness, and innovation.

+) Certification Process:
- Application: Organizations or individuals seeking certification submit an
application to the certifying body, specifying the scope and requirements of
certification.

Page 5
 - Assessment: The certifying body conducts an assessment or audit to evaluate
compliance with the relevant standards or criteria. This may involve document review,
on-site inspections, interviews, and testing.
- Decision and Certification: Based on the assessment findings, the certifying body
decides whether to grant certification. If the organization meets the requirements, it
receives a certificate or other formal documentation confirming certification.
- Surveillance and Renewal: Certification is typically valid for a limited period, after
which organizations must undergo periodic surveillance audits or recertification
assessments to maintain certification.

+) Certification Bodies and Accreditation:

- Certification Bodies (CBs): Organizations responsible for conducting certification
assessments and issuing certificates. CBs must demonstrate competence, impartiality,
and compliance with relevant accreditation requirements.
- Accreditation Bodies: Independent organizations that accredit certification bodies
based on internationally recognized standards (e.g., ISO/IEC 17021 for management
system certification). Accreditation provides assurance of the certification body's
competence and impartiality.
In summary, certification is a valuable tool for verifying conformity to standards,
ensuring quality, compliance, and reliability across various industries and sectors. It
enhances trust, facilitates market access, and promotes continuous improvement and
innovation.
1.4. Interrelationship of Concepts

Metrology, standardization, and certification are intrinsically linked:

Metrology & Standardization:

 Metrology provides the foundation for standardization by establishing the

scientific principles and techniques for accurate measurements.
 Metrology ensures the development, maintenance, and dissemination of
measurement standards, which serve as the basis for establishing uniformity
and comparability.
 Standardization relies on metrology to define measurement units, methods, and
traceability to ensure consistency across different industries, sectors, and
countries.
 Metrology and standardization work hand in hand to create a robust and reliable
measurement infrastructure that supports effective standard development and
implementation.

Metrology & Certification:

Page 6
 Metrology plays a crucial role in certification by providing accurate and traceable
measurement techniques and standards.
 Certification bodies rely on metrological principles to ensure that measurements
made during the certification process are reliable and accurate.
 Metrology supports the calibration and verification of measuring instruments used
in certification activities, maintaining their accuracy and traceability.
 Certification benefits from metrology's focus on precision and accuracy, ensuring
that certified products or services meet the required standards with confidence.

Standardization & Certification:

 Standardization sets the framework of guidelines, specifications, and requirements

for products, processes, and services.
 Certification verifies compliance with these established standards, providing
independent confirmation that a product or service meets specific quality, safety,
or performance criteria.
 Certification bodies rely on standards as reference documents for conducting
assessments, audits, and inspections.
 Standardization provides a benchmark against which certification is evaluated,
ensuring consistency and reliability in the certification process.

The interrelationship of metrology, standardization, and certification creates a

symbiotic ecosystem. Metrology provides the scientific basis for accurate
measurements, standardization establishes the guidelines and requirements for
uniformity, and certification verifies compliance with those standards. Together,
they form a robust framework that promotes accuracy, reliability, and
consistency in measurements and industries.

Page 7
 Chapter 2 : Principles and Classification of Comparators

Comparators are indispensable metrology instruments that excel in detecting

small variations in dimensions or geometry. Unlike direct measuring instruments (e.g.,
rulers, Vernier calipers), comparators rely on comparing a workpiece to a known
standard or reference. This chapter delves into the operating principles of comparators
and the diverse classification systems used to categorize them.

2.1. Concept of comparators

A comparator is a metrological instrument that amplifies and displays small

deviations in dimensions between a workpiece and a master reference with known
dimensions or form.

Comparators are primarily used for relative measurements. They are highly
sensitive and often provide greater resolution than direct measuring instruments

Comparator has been widely applied to many fields:

 Quality control: Inspection of manufactured parts against dimensional

tolerances.
 Workshop metrology: Comparing workpieces for uniformity.
 Calibration: Verifying the accuracy of other measuring instruments.

2.2. Principles of operation

Comparators are precision measurement instruments used for comparing the

dimensions of a workpiece to a standard reference. They work on the principle of
mechanical or optical magnification. The main principles of comparators include:

 Magnification: Comparators magnify the dimensions of the workpiece to make

them easily measurable. The magnification ratio determines the level of
amplification.
 Linear Scale: Comparators typically have a linear scale that allows for direct
measurement of the magnified dimension. The linear scale is calibrated to provide
accurate readings.
 Reference Plane: Comparators have a reference plane or datum surface against
which the workpiece is compared. It ensures consistent and repeatable
measurements.
 Contact or Non-Contact: Comparators can be contact or non-contact types.
Contact comparators use a probe or stylus to make physical contact with the
workpiece, while non-contact comparators use optical or electronic means to
measure without touching the workpiece.

Page 8
2.3. Classification of comparators

Comparators can be classified based on various factors, including their operating

principles, applications, and design features. Here are some common classifications:

1. Mechanical Comparators:

Dial Indicator Comparators: Use a mechanical dial indicator with a linear scale for
measurement.

Johansson Mikrokator: Utilizes a mechanical lever system and a linear scale.

2. Optical Comparators:

Profile Projectors: Employ an optical system, including lenses and a screen, to project
and magnify the profile of the workpiece.

Toolmakers Microscopes: Combine optical magnification with measuring scales to

measure small dimensions.

3. Electrical Comparators:

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) Comparators: Use an LVDT

transducer to convert linear displacement into electrical signals for measurement.

Digital Comparators: Utilize electronic sensors and digital displays to provide accurate
and precise measurements.

4. Pneumatic and Hydraulic Comparators:

Air Gauges: Measure dimensions using the variation of air pressure generated by the
workpiece.

Pressure or Liquid Column Comparators: Use hydraulic principles to measure the

displacement of a liquid column.

5. Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM):

CMMs are advanced measuring systems that use a combination of mechanical, optical,
and electronic components to measure the coordinates of points on a workpiece in
three-dimensional space.

Each type has its own advantages, limitations, and specific applications. The
choice of a comparator depends on the measurement requirements, accuracy
needed, and the characteristics of the workpiece being measured.

Page 9
Chapter 3 Circuit Analysis and Applications of Electrical Comparators

Chapter 3 will analyze the circuit and the applications of electrical comparators
based on the four given tasks

3.1. Task 1

Comparators are indispensable instruments in metrology. They are designed to

identify and magnify minute variations in dimensions or geometry by comparing a
workpiece to a reference standard having known dimensions.

Unlike instruments that provide direct measurements, comparators offer relative

measurements with significantly higher sensitivity, making them crucial in various
manufacturing and quality control processes.

General Concepts

 Principles of Operation:
o Comparison: The core function of a comparator is to compare a
workpiece against a master reference.
o Amplification: Any deviations detected are amplified through various
mechanisms, including:
 Mechanical: Levers, gears (See Fig. 3.1)

Figure 3.1. Dial Indicator

 Optical: Projection, magnification (See Fig.3.2)

Page 10
Figure 3.2. Profile Projector

 Pneumatic: Air pressure variations

 Electrical: Transducers like LVDTs
o Display: The amplified deviation is presented on a scale, dial, or digital
readout for assessment.

 Key Characteristics:
o Sensitivity: The smallest change in dimension a comparator can reliably
detect.
o Accuracy: How closely a comparator's measurement matches the true
dimension.
o Linearity: The consistency of readings across the comparator's
measurement range.
o Repeatability: The ability to obtain identical results on repeated
measurements of the same workpiece.

Applications of Comparators

 Quality Control:
o Example: A dial indicator is used to check the roundness of a
manufactured shaft. The shaft is mounted between centers and rotated,
while the dial indicator's probe maintains contact with the surface.
Variations in the dial reading reveal deviations from perfect roundness.
o Inspecting parts to ensure they fall within dimensional tolerances.
o Sorting components according to minute size variations.
 Manufacturing Processes:
o Precisely setting and adjusting machine tools.
o Monitoring wear and tear of tools during production.
 Metrology Laboratories:
o Calibrating gauges and other measurement instruments.
o Serving as highly precise reference standards.

Comparators are essential in scenarios demanding high precision and

amplification of small differences. Their diverse types, along with their widespread
applications, contribute significantly to modern manufacturing processes and the
guarantee of product quality.
Page 11
3.2. Task 2

Electrical comparators employ electrical transducers to convert minute

mechanical displacements into amplified electrical signals. This signal is then further
processed and displayed, providing highly sensitive measurements.

Construction
 Key Components:
o Transducer: The core component, often a Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT), strain gauge, capacitive sensor, or other types that
generate an electrical signal proportional to displacement.
o Signal Conditioning Circuit: Amplifies and filters the raw signal from
the transducer.
o Display: A meter, digital display, or computer interface to visualize the
measurement results.
o Power Supply: Provides necessary power to the circuitry.
Working Principle
1. Mechanical Displacement: The workpiece contacts a probe connected to the
transducer's moving core. Dimensional variations cause the core to move.
2. Electrical Conversion: The transducer changes this movement into a
corresponding electrical signal (change in voltage, resistance, capacitance, etc.).
3. Signal Processing: The signal is amplified, filtered, and potentially converted
into a suitable format for display.
4. Readout: The processed signal is presented on a display, indicating the
deviation from the reference dimension.
Special Features
 High Sensitivity: Electrical comparators often surpass mechanical comparators
in their ability to detect extremely small variations.
 Versatility: The choice of transducer allows customization for various
measurement ranges and workpiece materials.
 Integration: Easily integrated into automated inspection systems or
computerized data collection setups.
 Non-Contact Options: Some transducers (e.g., capacitive sensors) enable non-
contact measurements, ideal for delicate or soft workpieces.

Advantages
 Sensitivity and Accuracy: Ideal for precision measurements where minute
deviations are critical.
 Remote Readout: The electrical signal allows the display to be located away
from the measurement point, improving convenience in some setups.
 Data Logging: Can be easily combined with data acquisition systems for
analysis or process control.
Disadvantages
 Complexity: Generally more complex in construction compared to mechanical
comparators.
 Environmental Sensitivity: Can be influenced by temperature fluctuations or
electrical noise if not properly shielded.
Page 12
 Cost: Can be more expensive than simpler mechanical counterparts.
Example: LVDT-Based Electrical Comparator

Figure 3.3. LVDT

 Transducer: The LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is a
common transducer choice due to its linearity and robustness.
 Principle: The LVDT's moveable core alters the magnetic coupling between a
primary coil and two secondary coils, producing a differential voltage output
proportional to the core's displacement.

Electrical comparators offer exceptional sensitivity and integration capabilities,

making them indispensable in high-precision manufacturing, quality control, and
research settings. Understanding their construction, working principles, and relative
advantages is vital when selecting the most suitable comparator for a given
metrological task.

3.3. Task 3

* Task 3a

Understanding the Circuit

The circuit appears to be a basic moving coil meter (galvanometer) with shunt
resistors connected in parallel across the meter terminals. The shunt resistors will
divert a portion of the current away from the meter, allowing it to measure higher
voltages without damaging the delicate coil.

Parameters
 Rm = 15 kΩ (Internal resistance of the meter)
 IGmax = 100 μA (Maximum current for full-scale deflection)
 V1max = 1 V (Maximum voltage for Range 1)
 V2max = 5 V (Maximum voltage for Range 2)
 V3max = 50 V (Maximum voltage for Range 3)
Formula for Shunt Resistor

Page 13
We can use the following formula to calculate the shunt resistor (Rshunt) for each
range:

Rshunt = (Rm * Igmax) / (Imax - Igmax)

Where: Imax is the maximum current the meter can measure in that specific range.

Calculations for Each Range

Range 1 (0 V to 1 V)
1. Calculate Imax for Range 1:
o Imax (Range 1) = V1max / Rm = 1 V / 15 kΩ = 66.7 μA
2. Calculate R1 (Shunt resistor for Range 1):
o R1 = (Rm * Igmax) / (Imax - Igmax) = (15 kΩ * 100 μA) / (66.7 μA -
100 μA)
The calculated value for R1 is negative. This indicates that achieving a 1 V range
with this configuration is not possible. A negative resistance cannot be physically
implemented in a circuit.
Possible Solutions for Range 1
1. Change the Internal Resistance (Rm): If possible, a meter with a lower
internal resistance (Rm) could be used to achieve a wider range.
2. Modify the Circuit: The circuit could be redesigned using a voltage divider
circuit before the meter to reduce the voltage across the meter for the 1 V range.
Range 2 (0 V to 5 V)
1. Calculate Imax for Range 2:
o Imax (Range 2) = V2max / Rm = 5 V / 15 kΩ = 0.333 mA
2. Calculate R2 (Shunt resistor for Range 2):
o R2 = (Rm * Igmax) / (Imax - Igmax) = (15 kΩ * 100 μA) / (0.333 mA -
100 μA) = 6.52 kΩ (approximately)
Range 3 (0 V to 50 V)
1. Calculate Imax for Range 3:
o Imax (Range 3) = V3max / Rm = 50 V / 15 kΩ = 3.33 mA
2. Calculate R3 (Shunt resistor for Range 3):
o R3 = (Rm * Igmax) / (Imax - Igmax) = (15 kΩ * 100 μA) / (3.33 mA -
100 μA) = 464 Ω (approximately)
Summary of Shunt Resistor Values
 R1 (Range 1): Not achievable with this configuration (negative value)
 R2 (Range 2): 6.52 kΩ (approximately)
 R3 (Range 3): 464 Ω (approximately)

* Task 3b: Measuring Voltages Beyond the Instrument's Range

Problem Statement

The moving coil meter described in Task 3a has a limited measurement range
(maximum 50V). This prevents the direct measurement of a 120V DC source.

Solution: Employing a Voltage Divider

Page 14
 A voltage divider circuit can be used to reduce the 120V input to a level safely
measurable by the instrument. This approach involves the following:

1. Voltage Divider Design:

o Principle: A voltage divider consists of two resistors in series. The input
voltage is applied across the series combination, and the output voltage
is taken across one of the resistors.
o Calculation: Determine the required voltage division ratio to bring
120V down to a value below the meter's 50V range. For instance, a ratio
of 2.5:1 would reduce 120V to 48V.
o Resistor Selection: Choose resistors (R1 and R2) according to the
calculated ratio. Importantly, the resistors must have:
 High input impedance to minimize their impact on the circuit
being measured.
 Sufficient power ratings to safely handle the voltage and current
levels.
2. Circuit Setup:
o Connect the voltage divider in series with the 120V DC source.
o Attach the output of the voltage divider (the reduced voltage) across the
meter's input terminals.
o Select the 50V range on the meter.
3. Measurement and Calculation:
o Record the voltage displayed on the meter (V_meter).
o Calculate the actual source voltage (V_source) using the voltage divider
ratio: V_source = V_meter * (R1 + R2) / R2

Safety Considerations

 Essential: Exercise extreme caution when working with high voltages.

Adherence to electrical safety practices is paramount. Consultation with a
qualified instructor or professional is strongly recommended before practically
implementing this solution.

Example

Assuming a voltage divider ratio of 2.5:1:

 A 120V input would produce a 48V output, measurable by the meter.

 If the meter reads 48V, applying the ratio calculation yields the true source
voltage of 120V.

* Task 3.2: Ammeter Modification for Expanded Range

Problem Statement

A moving coil instrument has a full-scale deflection current (Igmax) of 10 mA

with a corresponding potential difference (Vm) of 100 mV across its terminals. The
goal is to modify this instrument to measure currents up to 100 A.
Page 15
Solution: Shunt Resistor Calculation

To extend the meter's current measurement range, a shunt resistor is placed in

parallel with the meter's internal coil. This shunt diverts most of the current, allowing
only a small portion to flow through the meter.

Formula:

The required shunt resistance (Rshunt) can be calculated using:

Rshunt = (Vm / Imax – Igmax)

Where: Imax is the desired full-scale current (100 A)

Calculations

1. Convert Units: Ensure consistent units (Amps and Volts in this case).
o Igmax = 10 mA = 0.01 A
o Vm = 100 mV = 0.1 V
2. Substitute and Calculate:
o Rshunt = (0.1 V / 100 A – 0.01 A) = 0.1 V / 99.99 A ≈ 0.0010001 Ω

Result

A shunt resistor of approximately 1.00 mΩ (milliohm) is required to achieve a

full-scale deflection of 100 A.

Considerations

 Practical Implementation: Shunt resistors with extremely low resistance

values require special materials and construction to ensure accuracy and handle
the power dissipation.
 Power Dissipation: The shunt resistor will dissipate significant power (which
can be calculated using P = I^2 * R). Proper heat management is necessary to
prevent damage.

* Task 3.2 (Continued): Voltmeter Modification and Power Dissipation

b) Series Resistance for 1000V Measurement

Problem: The moving coil instrument cannot directly measure 1000V due to its
limited voltage handling capacity.

Solution: Series Resistor

A high-value resistor placed in series with the meter acts as a voltage limiter,
protecting the meter by dropping most of the voltage.

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Formula:

The required series resistance (Rseries) is calculated as follows:

Rseries = (Vmax - Vm) / Igmax

Where:Vmax is the desired full-scale voltage (1000V)

Calculations

1. Units: Ensure consistent units as before.

2. Substitution:
o Rseries = (1000 V - 0.1 V) / 0.01 A = 999.9 V / 0.01 A ≈ 99.9 kΩ

Result

A series resistor of approximately 99.9 kΩ is needed for the meter to read 1000V
at full-scale deflection.

Power Dissipation

Since current flows through both the shunt resistor (case a) and the series resistor
(case b), it's essential to calculate the power dissipated in each component.

Formulas:

 Power dissipation in the shunt resistor (Pshunt): Pshunt = Imax^2 * Rshunt

 Power dissipation in the series resistor (Pseries): Pseries = Imax^2 * Rseries

Calculations

Case a: Shunt Resistor

 Pshunt = (100 A)^2 * 0.0010001 Ω ≈ 10 W

Case b: Series Resistor

 Pseries = (0.01 A)^2 * 99.9 kΩ ≈ 10 W

Both the shunt resistor and the series resistor will dissipate a significant amount
of power (approximately 10 Watts each). Choosing resistors with appropriate power
ratings and ensuring adequate thermal management is crucial to prevent component
failure due to overheating.

Page 17
Conclusion
This exploration of metrology, standardization, and certification, guided by the
expertise of Professor Nguyen Ngoc Khoat, has illuminated the following core
principles:

 The Bedrock of Metrology: Precision measurement systems and techniques

are fundamental to all areas where quantitative assessment is critical: science,
manufacturing, and commerce.
 Standards as Drivers of Progress: Universally agreed-upon standards create a
framework for compatibility, efficiency, and innovation, benefiting industries
and consumers alike.
 Certification: The Mark of Excellence: The ability to demonstrate
compliance with standards through third-party certification fosters market trust
and creates a competitive advantage.
 Comparators: Guardians of Quality: Comparators, with their ability to detect
minute variations, underpin rigorous quality control processes, ensuring
manufactured goods meet the most demanding specifications.

The inherent interconnectedness of these concepts has been repeatedly demonstrated

through this course:

 Metrology is the basis for developing meaningful standards and the tools to
enforce them.
 Standards provide the benchmarks against which products or processes are
certified.
 Certification, in turn, drives demand for ever more precise and accurate
metrological instruments.

The report has outlined the broad-reaching positive outcomes associated with a
commitment to quality through metrology, standardization, and certification:

 Improved product quality, reliability, and consistency.

 Enhanced manufacturing efficiency and reduced waste.
 Increased consumer confidence and protection.
 Facilitated global trade and technological collaboration.

Metrology, standardization, and certification will continue to evolve, necessitating

ongoing learning and adaptation. Key trends identified include:

 Increased automation and integration of comparators into intelligent

manufacturing systems.
 Utilization of data generated by comparators for greater process insight and
optimization.
 Development of novel metrological techniques to keep pace with innovations in
advanced materials and complex manufacturing processes.

A comprehensive understanding of metrology, standardization, and certification, along

with the principles behind essential instruments like comparators, is invaluable for
Page 18
professionals engaged in manufacturing, engineering, quality assurance, or any field
where precision and adherence to standards are paramount.

Page 19
References
1. BIPM. (n.d.). International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved from
https://www.bipm.org/

2. ISO. (n.d.). International Organization for Standardization. Retrieved from

https://www.iso.org/

3. NIST. (n.d.). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved from

https://www.nist.gov/

4. OIML. (n.d.). International Organization of Legal Metrology. Retrieved from

https://www.oiml.org/

5. Sartori, E. (1994). Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement.

International Organization for Standardization.

6. JCGM. (2008). Evaluation of measurement data — Guide to the expression of

uncertainty in measurement. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology.

7. Doiron, T., & Beers, J. (2005). The Gauge Block Handbook. NIST Monograph 180.

8. Hnatek, E. R. (1980). Analog-Digital Conversion Handbook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall.

9. Boyes, W. (2009). Instrumentation Reference Book. Butterworth-Heinemann.

10. Bentley, J. P. (2005). Principles of Measurement Systems. Pearson Education.

11. Sydenham, P. H., & Thorn, R. (2005). Handbook of Measuring System Design.
John Wiley & Sons.

12. Figliola, R. S., & Beasley, D. E. (2010). Theory and Design for Mechanical
Measurements. John Wiley & Sons.

13. Maynard, H. B. (1971). Industrial Engineering Handbook. McGraw-Hill.

14. Juran, J. M., & Godfrey, A. B. (1998). Juran's Quality Handbook. McGraw-Hill.

15. Hoyle, D. (2009). ISO 9000 Quality Systems Handbook. Butterworth-Heinemann.