UPSC – IAS

Civil Services Examinations

Union Public Service Commission

General Studies
Paper I – Volume I

Art & Culture

 UPSC CSE – IAS
PAPER - 1 Volume – 1
Art & Culture
Page
S.No. Chapter Name
No.
1. Introduction 1
• Characteristic of culture
• Culture and Heritage
• Importance of culture
• Characteristics of Indian Culture
2. Architecture 2
• Temple Architecture
o Basic Structure of a Hindu temple
o Use of fractal geometry in temple architecture
• Stages of Temple Architecture
• Styles of Temple Architecture
o The Nagara Or North Indian Temple Style
o The Dravida Or The South Indian Temple Style
o Temple Architecture Of Cholas
o Vesara School Of Temple Architecture
o Vijayanagara Style Of Temple Architecture
o Pala And Sena School Of Temple Architecture
• Sun Temples In India
o Konark Sun Temple
o Modhera Surya Temple, Gujarat
o Martand Sun Temple, Kashmir
o Dakshinaarka Temple, Gaya (Bihar)
o Suryanarayana Swamy Temple, Arasavalli (Andhra Pradesh)
o Suryanaar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil Nadu)
o Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Pradesh)
• Temple Architecture at the Hills
• Jaina Temple Architecture
• International Influence of Indian Temple Architecture
• Stupa Architecture
o Component of Stupas
o Maurayan Stupas :
• Cave Architecture
o Mauryan Caves (3rd BC- 1st CE)
o Post Mauryan Caves (1st CE- 4th CE)
o Gupta period caves ( 5th–6th century CE)
o Rashtrakutas & Others (6th–15th century CE)
• Palaces & Forts Architecture
o Post Mauryan, Gupta & South Indian Palaces & Fort
o Indo-Islamic Architecture
o Delhi Sultanate Period
o Slave Dynasty
 o Khilji Dynasty
o Forts in Medieval Time
o Tughlaq Dynasty
o Sayyid Dynasty
o Lodhi Dynasty
o Provincial Architecture
o Mughal Architecture
o Post Mughal Regional Architecture
o Maratha Architecture
• Colonial Architecture
o Features of Colonial Architecture in India
o Iberian/Portuguese Architecture
o Features of Iberian Style
o Gothic Architecture
o Indo-Saracenic style
o French Style Architecture
o Neo-Roman architecture
• The Post-Independence Architecture
o Key features
• Preservation of Architectural Heritage
o UNESCO World Heritage Sites
o Cultural sites:
o Natural Sites:
o Mixed Site:
o Preservation in India
o Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
3. Sculpture & Artifacts 47
• Evolution of Sculpture
o Bronze age sculpture
o Pre-Mauryan art
o Art of the Mauryan period
o Art of the Shunga period (180-80 BCE)
o Gupta period
o Medieval, c. 600 onwards
o Early Modern period (1206-1858)
o British Colonial period (1858-1947)
o Post-Independence (1947 - present)
• Indus Valley Civilisation-Sculpture
o Stone Sculptures
o Bronze Figures
o Terracotta Figures
o Seals
o Ornaments
• The Mauryan Sculpture Art
o Pillars
o Ashokan Edicts
o Popular Sculpture
• Post mauryan Trends
• Schools of Indian Sculpture
o Gandhara School of Sculptures
o Mathura School of Sculpture
 o Amravati School of Sculpture
• Gupta period Sculpture
o Features of Gupta Sculptures:
o Important Aspects
• Pala & Chandela Sculptures
o The Pala Sculptures
o Khajuraho Sculptures
• Sculptures in South India
o Pallavas
o Chola
o Vijayanagara
o Important Inscriptions & Edicts in India
4. Pottery in India 62
• Mesolithic pottery
• Neolithic Age
• Indus Valley Civilization Pottery
• Ochre Coloured Pottery
• Black and Red Ware Pottery
• Black-on-red ware
• Painted Grey Ware Pottery
• Mauryan Pottery
• Red Polished Ware (Gujarat)
• Turko-Mughal period
• Blue Pottery
5. Coins in India 64
• Punch Marked Coins
o Punch marked coins issued by various Mahajanapadas
o Punch marked coins during Mauryan Period (322–185 BC)
• Indo-Greek Coins
• Coins by Satavahanas
• Satraps or Indo-Scythians
• Coins during the Gupta Age
• Coins of the Vardhanas
• Coins issued by Chalukyan Kings
• Coins issued by Rajput Dynasties
• Coins of the Pandyan & Chola Dynasty
• Turkish & Delhi Sultanate Coins
• Vijayanagara Empire Coins
• Mughal Era Coinage
6. Paintings 67
• Prehistoric Paintings
o Upper Paleolithic times (40,000-10,000 years ago)
o Mesolithic Period (10,000-4000 BC)
o Chalcolithic Paintings
• Ancient Paintings
o Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra
o Ellora Cave, Maharashtra
o Bagh cave
o Armamalai Cave , Vellore, Tamil Naidu
o Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh
 o Jogimara cave & Sita Bengra Caves, Chhattisgarh
o Ravan Chhaya, Odisha
o Badami cave temples, Karnataka
o Sittanavasal, Tamil Naidu
• Medieval / Miniature paintings
o Pala style of miniature (750 A.D. to 1150 AD)
o Jaina Apabhramsa School of Miniature ( 12th - 16th centuries).
o Delhi Sultanate paintings
o Mughal Paintings
o Daccacni art
• Regional School of Paintings
o Rajasthani School of Miniature Paintings
o The Pahari School of Miniature Paintings
• South India Miniature
• Folk Paintings across India
• Modern Trends in paintings
o Schools that favoured European styles
o Schools that were against European styles
• Modern India Pianters
o Progressive artist group, Bombay
o Cubist style of painting
7. Religion 79
• Shramana Schools
o Concepts of Sramana philosophies:-
• Hinduism
o Important Principles
o Literature or scriptures of Hinduism
o Sects under Hinduism
o Pilgrimage Sites
o Hindu Festival
• Islam
o Historical Background
o Principles
o Literature
o School or Sects
• Christianity
o Basic doctrines of Christianity are
o Literature
o Festivals
• Sikhism
o History
o 10 Sikh Gurus
o Sikh Festival
• Jainism
o Principles
o Important concept
o Sects or School
o Literature
o Pilgrimage
o Festivals
• Buddhism
 o Pilgrimage
o Prominent personality
o Buddhist Symbol
• Judaism
• Zoroastrianism
o Parsi (Zoroastrian) Festivals
8. Philosophy in India 94
• Astika or Orthodox schools
o Samkhya
o Yoga
o Nyaya
o Vaisesika
o Mimamsa
o Vedanta
• Nastika or Heterodox school
o Ajivika Schools
o Charavaka
o Jainism
o Buddhism Philosophy
9. Languages in India 102
• Classification of Indian Languages
o Indo-Aryan Group
o Old Indo-Aryan Group
o Middle Indo-Aryan Group
o Dravidian Group
o Sino-Tibetan Group
o Austric-asiatic
• Official Languages of India
• Classical Languages
o Criteria to determine Classical Language provided by the Ministry of
Culture in the Rajya Sabha in 2014.
o Benefits of Classical Language Status
• Scripts in Ancient India
o Indus script
o Brahmi script
o Gupta script
o Kharosthi script
o Devanagari script
o Vatteluttu script
o Kadamba script
o Grantha script
o Sarada script
o Gurmukhi script
o Modi script
o Urdu script
10 Literature 106
• Evolution Of Literature
• Sanskrit Literature
o Sanskrit Religious Literature
o Sanskrit Epics
o Ramayana
 o Mahabharata
o The Puranas
o The Upapuranas
o Secular Sanskrit Literature
o Sanskrit Drama
o Sanskrit Poetry
• Pali And Prakrit literature
o Pali
o Prakrit
• Dravidian Literature
o Sangam (Tamil) Literature
o Kannada Literature
o Telugu Literature
o Malayalam Literature
• Regional Literature
o Bengali literature
o Assamese literature
o Odia Literature
o Gujarati literature
o Rajasthani literature
o Sindhi Literature
o Kashmiri Literature
o Punjabi Literature
o Marathi Literature
• Urdu Literature
• Persian Literature
• Hindi Literature
• Travel Diaries
• Modern Literature
11. Indian Music 120
• Components Of Indian Music
o Swara
o Raga
o Rasa
o Taal/Tala
o Thaat
o Other components of Raga
• Classification of Indian Music
• Classical Music
o Hindustani Music
o Carnatic Music
• Similarities between Hindustani and carnatic Style
o Hindustani vs. Carnatic Style
o Early proponents of Carnatic Music
• Folk Music
o Types of Folk Music
o Other major folk traditions from the country
• Fusion of Classical and Folk
o Bhajan
o Shabad
o Qawwali
 o Rabindra Sangeet
o Gana Sangeet
o Haveli Sangeet
• Modern Developments In Music
o Gandharva Mahavidyalaya
o Prayag Sangeet Samiti
o Sangeet Natak Akademi
o Marris College of Music
• Musical Instruments
12. Indian Dance 132
• History Of Dance In India
• Aspects Of Dance
• Classical Dances Of India
o Bharatnatyam
o Kathak
o Kuchipudi
o Odissi
o Sattriya
o Mohiniattam
o Kathakali
o Manipuri
• Folk Dance
• Significance Of Dance
13 Theatre 141
• Classical Sanskrit Theatre
• Folk Theatre
o Ritual Theatre
o Theatre of Entertainment
o Theatres of South India
• Modern Theatre
• Promotion, Preservation And Commercialization Of Theatre
• Personalities And Institutions
14 Puppetry 146
• String Puppets
• Shadow Puppets
• Glove Puppets
• Rod Puppets
• Promotion, Preservation And Commercialization Of Puppetry
15. Science And Technology 149
• Science and technology for Architecture
• Mathematics
o Aryabhatta
o Brahmagupta
o Bhaskaracharya
o Srinivas Ramanujan
• Chemistry
o Nagarjuna
o Tipu Sultan
o Mughals
• Medicine
o Charak Samhita
 o Sushruta Samhita
o Saranga Deva
o Systems of medicine
▪ Ayurveda
▪ Siddha
▪ Sowa-Rigpa
▪ Unani
▪ Yoga
▪ Homeopathy
• Astronomy
o Aryabhatta
o Bhaskaracharya
o Varahamihira
o Feroz Shah Tughlaq
o Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II
o Feroz Shah Bahamani
16. Martial Arts in India 153
• Kalaripayattu
• Silambam
• Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak
• Cheibi Gad-ga
• Pari-khanda
• Thoda
• Gatka
• Mardani Khel
• Lathi
• Inbuan Wrestling
• Kuttu Varisai
• Mallakhamb
• Musti Yuddha
17. Fairs & Festivals 155
• Important Fairs
• Harvest Festivals in India
• New Year Festivals in India
• Secular Festivals
• North East Festivals
• National Festivals
18. Indian Cinema 160
• Evolution of Indian Cinema
• Regional Cinema
• Indian Cinematograph Act of 1952
• Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC)
19. Art Forms 162
• Ivory Carving
• Woodwork
• Clay and Pottery Work
• Leather Products
20. Toys 167
• FLOOR DECORATIONS
• METAL CRAFTS
 • Glassware
• Institutions
• UNESCO
• The Archeological Survey of India
• Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
• All India Radio
• Nehru Memorial Museum and Library
• National Archives of India
• Indian Council for cultural Ralation
• Indian National Trust for Art & Cultural Heritage (INTACH)
• National School of Drama
• Lalit Kala Akademi
• Sahitya Academy (National Academy of Letters)
• Sangeet Natak Akademy
• Centre for Cultural Resources and Training
21. Government Laws and Culture 176
• Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878
• The Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904
• The Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947
• The Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains
(Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951
• Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972
• Public Records Act, 1993
22. Awards and Honours 179
• Bharat Ratna
• Padma Awards
• Sahitya Akademi Award
• National Film Awards
• Other Literary Awards
23. Important personalities 183
24. Important Ancient Universities of India 187
25. Important Monasteries in India 189
 1 Introduction
CHAPTER

● The progress and development of a country are Importance of culture

evaluated based on some parameters like economic
● Three eternal values of truth (philosophy and
growth, political freedom of citizens, development of religion), beauty (art and architecture) & goodness
natural and human resources. Human resources (ethics and values of love, tolerance) are linked with
development needs scientific, educational & cultural culture
development. Thus, Art & Culture are defining ● Collective knowledge is what makes us human and it
parameters for any country or civilization. is being shared between inter and intra generations
● Art is an expression & application of human creativity (culture)
and imagination, typically in a visual form. Whereas
culture is a way of life. It is a system of knowledge
Characteristics of Indian Culture
● Continuity and change
shared by a relatively large group of people. It
● Secular outlook
includes all the achievements i.e. material as well as
● Universalism (peace, non-alignment, world
non-material of a human being as a member of a fraternity)
social group. ● Variety and unity
● Elements of culture include: Art, music, philosophy, o All the major religion of the world are here
religion, science, Custom, tradition, festival, etc. o Geography and climate
o Foreign influence (Iranian, Greeks, Arab, British)
Characteristic of culture o Different racial stocks
● It is learned and acquired o Regional Intermingling
● Shared by a group o The remarkable capacity of assimilation of ideas
● Dynamic o Trade, pilgrimage, the military campaign
● Impacts behaviour ● Materialistic as well as Spiritualistic
● Diversity
Civilization means having better ways of living like food,
dress, communication, etc.

Culture and Heritage

● The culture we inherit from predecessors is called
cultural heritage likewise national heritage, human
heritage, etc.
● Culture is liable to change but Heritage does not.

1
 2
CHAPTER
Architecture
Architecture is art & science which deals with designing
building and non builiding structures. Architecture began
in India from Indus valley civilization and led to creation of
various structures like temples, Stupas, Rock-cut Caves,
Palaces, Forts etc.

Temple Architecture
Temple architecture in India developed
during the Gupta age in the 4th to 5th
century CE. The first Hindu temples were
4. Vahana- It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s
built from rock-cut caves which were
main deity which is placed before the garbhagriha.
influenced by Buddhist structures such as stupas. During
5. Amalak- A stone disc like structure crowning the top
this period, free-standing temples were built extensively. of the North Indian style shikhara.
Dashavatara temple (Deogarh, Jhansi) and brick temple 6. Kalasha- Wide-mouthed pot or ornamental pot-
(Bhitargaon, Kanpur) are some examples of temples built design decorating the shikhara in North Indian
during this period. temples.
The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are 7. Antarala- A transition area between the Garbhagriha
described in Shilpa Shastra which mentions three main and the temple’s main hall (mandapa)
types of temple architecture – Nagara style, the Dravida 8. Jagati- A raised platform for sitting and praying and is
style, and the Vesara or Mixed style. common in North Indian temples.

Basic Structure of a Hindu temple Use of fractal geometry in temple architecture

1. Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum)- The ● Geometry of a plan starts with a line which then forms
Garbhagriha, literally called the ‘womb house, is an angle, then triangle, square, circle and so on
made to house the main deity inside the temple. ultimately resulting in complex forms.
Earlier in the days, it had a single entrance which later ● This complexity results in self-similarity which leads to
grew into many chambers. occurrence of fractal geometry.
2. Mandapa- It is the entrance of the temple which may ● The plan of the Hindu temple strictly follows the
be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates principles described in Puranas related to the
Vastupurushamandala.
space for a large number of worshippers. Some
● There are mainly two types of mandalas, one is with
temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes
sixty-four squares and another with eighty-one
named Ardhamandapa (entrance porch forming a
squares where each square is dedicated to a deity.
transitional area between the outside and a mandap
● Starting with Mukhamandapa, Ardhamandapa, and
of the temple) and Mahamandapa (main assembly
finally the Maha Mandapa, comes the Mulaprasada,
hall in the temple where devotees gather for
which encloses the Garbhagriha. The enclosures of
ceremonies and group prayer). These are present only
these halls and the spaces gradually take the shape
in few temples. following the fractal theory.
3. Shikhara/Vimana- It is a mountain-like spire, which is ● Fractal also has a great impact on temple elevations
in the shape of a curving Shikhar in North India and a in both two-dimensions and three dimensions.
pyramidal tower (called vimana) in South India. ● Fractal works in the Amlaka part by creating self-
similar ribs.

2
● The fractal theory fully supports the Hindu 4. Addition of a covered ambulatory passageway around
philosophical concept of “one among all, all is one‟. It the sanctum sanctorum which was used as
brings about “order in chaos‟ and thereby “a beauty Pradakshina path.
in complexity‟.
● The Surya kund at Modhera in Gujarat is a classic example
of use of fractal geometry in Indian temples.

Examples- Parvati temple at MP and Ladkhan temple at

Aihole, Karnataka.

Third Stage
1. Most of the characteristics of stage two carried
forward with the emergence of Shikhara (curvilinear
tower) in place of flat roofs.
2. “Nagara Style” temple making is said to be the success
of the third stage of temple making.
Stages of Temple Architecture 3. Panchayatana style of temple making was
The development of temple architecture in India followed introduced. In this style, there were four subsidiary
a gradual progression starting with a square building with shrines along with the main temple which housed the
a flat roof in the initial stage to circular buildings with principal deity. The subsidiary shrines were placed
sculptured shikhara in the later stages. This development opposite to each other on either side of the mandap,
can be observed in five stages- which represented a crucified ground plan.

Examples - Dasavatara temple in Deogarh, U.P. and Durga

temple at Aihole, Karnataka.
First Stage
Fourth Stage
1. Square-shaped temple with a flat roof
2. Shallow-pillared approach at the front 1. All the features of the third stage carried forward in
3. The structure was built on low platform this stage. Only the main temple became more
4. Garbhagriha or the sanctum sanctorum lay at the rectangular in shape.
center of the temple 2. Barrel-vaulted roof above.
5. A single entrance to the temple
Examples- Vishnu Varaha temples at Eran in MP, Kankali
temple, Tigwa and Temple no. 17 at Sanchi.

Second Stage
1. Continued with the flat roofed temples and squared-
pillared approach from the first stage.
2. Temples built on higher or upraised platforms
3. Addition of storeys to some structures Examples- Ter temple at Solapur and Kapoteswara temple
at Cazorla (Andhra Pradesh).

3
Fifth Stage ● Presence of Amalak at the top- a horizontal fluted disc
1. Introduction of circular temples with shallow at the vertical end of the Shikhara. Above amalak,
rectangular projections. there is placed a spherical shaped Kalash.
2. Rest all the features of previous stages continued. ● No water tanks or reservoirs located within the
Examples- Maniyar Math at Rajgir. temple premises.
● Outside the garbhagriha, images of the river
Styles of Temple Architecture goddesses Ganga and Yamuna were placed.
As mentioned in the Shilpa Shastra, there are three main ● The porticos had pillared approach.
types of temple architecture- the Nagara style, the Dravida ● Covered ambulatory passageway or the pradakshina
style and the Vesara style. path.
● No elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
● A number of graduated projections (rathakas) are
present.
● Based on the shape of Shikharas, Nagara temples can
be classified into--
1. Latina or rekha-prasad- Shikhara is square at the
base and walls curve or slope inward to a point
on top.
2. Phamsana- these temple buildings tend to be
broader and shorter than latina ones. Their
Shikhara do not curve inwards, instead they slope
upwards in a straight incline. Their roofs are
poised of several slabs that gently rise to a single
The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style point over the centre of the building, unlike the
● Became popular in northern India Latina ones which look like sharply rising tall
from the 5th century AD onwards towers.
● The temples are built on a stone 3. Valabhi- Rectangular buildings with a roof that
platform with steps leading up to it. rises into a vaulted chamber and are thus called
● The temples follow the Panchayatana style of temple ‘wagon-vaulted buildings’. The vaulted
making- 4 smaller temples in the corners. Towers, chamber's edge is rounded, resembling the
known as shikharas, rise high and upward in a curved bamboo or wooden wagons pulled by bullocks in
pyramidal pattern, highlighting the temple’s vertical ancient times.
thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc known as an
amalak topped with a kalash or vase.

● Presence of shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha Examples of Nagara school – Dashavatara temple
(sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall). (Deogarh), Vishwanatha temple (Khajuraho), Lakshman
● Assembly halls present before the pincipal shrine. Temple (Khajuraho), etc.
● While the earliest temples had just one tower or Under the Nagara style of temple architecture, three sub-
shikhara, later temples had multiple Shikharas with schools emerged-
the garbhagriha located directly under the tallest 1. Khajuraho School
tower. 2. Odisha School
3. Solanki School

4
Temple Architecture of Chandela/Khajuraho ● Sandstone is used as building material.
● Temples are built on relatively upraised platforms.
School
● The temples followed the Panchayatan style and all
● Khajuraho temples are known for their erotic had rekha-prasad shikhara.
sculptures. These sculptures are usually placed at the Examples- The temple complex at Khajuraho, Chausath
entrance of the temple or on an exterior wall or they Yogini Temple, Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Chaturbhuja
may also be placed on the walls between the Temple, etc.
mandapa and the main shrine.
Temple Architecture of Solanki School
This school of temple architecture was patronized by
Solanki rulers of Gujarat (11th to 13th century).
● Developed in the north-western part of India
including Gujarat and Rajasthan.
● No carvings on temple walls.
● Presence of a step-tank, known as surya kund, within
the temple premises is an unique feature of this school.
● The erotic expression is provided equal importance in ● A number of small shrines are carved in between the
human experience as spiritual chase, and it is viewed steps of the tank.
as component of a larger cosmic whole. ● Different types of stones are used for construction of
● The local style at Khajuraho is different from the the temples and these are of variant colours.
Nagara Style as there is interregnum (called the ● While sandstone is the commonest, the most famed is
the soft white marble which is also seen in some of the
antarala) between the Garbha-griha and Maha-
tenth to twelfth century Jain temples in Mount Abu.
mandapa. (In Nagara style, Garbha-griha and the
● The temples are usually east-facing and are designed
Maha-mandapa are fused together).
in such a way that every year, at the time of the
● The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya
equinoxes, the sun shines directly into this central
Mahadeva temple, dedicated to Lord Siva. It is built in
shrine.
Panchayatana style. (4 smaller temples in the corners) ● There is no interregnum between the Garbhagriha
● Towers, known as shikharas, rise high and upward in and the mandapa.
a curved pyramidal pattern, highlighting the temple’s ● Torans or the arched gateways are present.
vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc ● Sculptures in western India and Rajasthan were very
known as an amalak topped with a kalash or vase. ornate, with the Jain Dilwara temples of Mount Abu
● Another important temple in Khajuraho is the accomplishing a marvelous architectural perfection in
Lakshmana temple, dedicated to Vishnu and stone.
constructed in 954 by the Chandela king Dhanga. ● Marble sculpture practises of Gujarat in Western India
● Apart from erotic sculptures, rest of the sculptures can be seen in the large quantity of intricately carved
depict the everyday life of the common people such sculptures which beautify the Jain temples at Mount
as women putting on makeup, playing games, etc. Abu, Palitana and Girnar.
● Temple walls are decorated with carvings of deities ● The beautiful figures of the four-armed Vishnu, the
such as Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, Indra, Agni and their Hindu god of preservation, were customised in the
spouses. 13th Century AD.
Examples- The Sun temple at Modhera, Dilwara temple in
Mt. Abu, dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras, etc.

Temple Architecture of Odisha School

● By the middle of the ninth Century AD, a school of
sculpture had grown in Orissa, which took lavish pride
in the lovely forms of women, among other items. On
the face of the walls, there are many sculptures of
beautiful female figures. Many such examples of
young and charming creatures with a seductive smile
and luxurious hair full of jewelry can be found in
Odisha temples, and they are known as Nayikas.

5
 Examples- major temple sites are found in ancient Kalinga,
modern Puri District, comprising Bhubaneswar or ancient
Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark. The sun temple at
Konark, Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga rulers, the
Mukteshwar temple at Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannath
temple at Puri are a few examples.

The Dravida or the South Indian Temple Style

● Emerged between the 7th to 18th
century mainly in the states of Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra
● The Kalinga or Odisha style of temple architecture is
located in ancient Kalinga—modern Puri District, Pradesh.
including Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, ● The Dravidian temples are enclosed within high
Puri and Konark. boundary walls unlike the Nagara temples.
● Temple is divided into two parts- a tower (or Shikhara) and ● A high entrance gateway known as Gopuram, is
a hall. The tower is known as deul in Kalinga architecture present at the front wall in its centre which is heavily
and the hall or mandap is known as jagmohan. decorated and carved.
● The Shikhara is vertical almost until the top when it ● The shape of the main temple tower known as
suddenly curves sharply inwards. Lower upright Vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up
portion is known as “Bada”. The tall middle portion is geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of
known as “Chapra”, over which is a flat fluted disk North India.
which was known as “Amla”.
● The exterior walls of both the deul and the jagmohan are
lavishly sculpted with architectural motifs and a profusion
of figures. However, the interior walls are plain.
● Odisha temples usually have boundary walls.
● The ground plan of the main temple is usually square
which as we move upwards, becomes circular in the
crowning mastaka. Thus, cylindrical appearance in its
length.
● The temples in Odisha have three types of Deula - ● Shikhara is the crowning element at the top of the
Rekha Deula, Pidha / Bhadra Deula and Khakra Deula. temple and is in the shape of an octagon. This is
1. Rekha Deula- It is a tall building with a sikhara. equivalent to the amalaka and kalasha of North Indian
The most distinct example of Rekha Deula is the temples.
Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar. ● Sculptures of fierce dwarapalas or the door-keepers
2. Pidha Deula - It is a square building with a are present at the entrance of the temple.
pyramid-shaped roof similar to the vimana. ● A large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed
Konark Sun Temple is an example. within the temple complex. (Temple tank is not found
3. Khakhara Deula - It is a rectangular building with
in Nagara Style of architecture)
a truncated pyramid-shaped roof, like the
● The temple premise is laid in Panchayatan style.
gopuras. One example is the Baitala Deula of
● The subsidiary shrines do not have vimanas.
Bhubaneswar, dedicated to Chamunda.
● The main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated
has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.
● The Garbhagriha and the assembly hall (Mandapa) are
connected together through a vestibular tunnel called
the antarala.
Sub-divisions of Dravida temples based on shapes. There
are mainly five different shapes-
1. Square, generally called caturasra or Kuta
2. Rectangular or ayatasra or shala
3. Vrittayata or elliptical also called elephant backed or
gaja-prishta
4. Circular or vritta
5. Octagonal or ashtasra

6
This is, however, a simplistic division of the subdivisions.  Starting from this
Several different shapes can be combined at various times stage, the rock-cut
and in various locations to create their own distinct form. temples were
Examples- Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur, built decorated with
about 1010 by Rajaraja 1, temple at intricate sculptures.
At Mahabalipuram,
Gangaikondacholapuram, built about 1025 by Rajendra
there are excavated
Chola, Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Meenakshi Temple
pillared halls and
(Madurai), etc. monolithic shrines known as Rathas.
Temple Architecture of Pallavas  Under Narasimhavarman, Port City of Mamallapuram
was converted to a beautiful city of art and
The tradition of direct patronization of the temples began architecture. Mandapas became rathas or chariots
with the Pallavas. From the reign of Mahendravarman I, and are named after the five Pandava brothers and
the Pallava king, finest examples of Pallava art were Draupadi. Dharmaraja ratha was the biggest one
created in Tamil Nadu such as Shore Temple and 7 while the Draupadi ratha was the smallest one.
pagodas of Mahabalipuram. Some of the terrific Mamallapuram's monolithic rathas are now known as
sculptures that are recognized for their patronage are the Pancha Pandava Rathas. (Monolithic refers to the fact
Mahishasuramardini, Giri Govardhan panel, Trivikrama that each ratha or chariot was carved from a single
piece of rock.)
Vishnu Arjuna’s penance or the Descent of the Ganga,
 Dharamraj Rath is considered as the precursor of
Gajalakshmi and Anatasayanam. Pallava architecture
Dravidian style of temple making.
shows the transition from the rock cut temples to the
 Mahishasura Mardhini Mandapa, a scene depicting
stone-built temples. the Goddess Durga's attack on Mahishasura can be
Mahendra Group or Mahendravarman style seen. Arjuna’s Penance at Mahabalipuram is also an
important example.
(600-630CE).
 The early buildings are generally attributed to the Rajasimha Group (690 to 800 AD)
reign of Mahendravarman I.  This stage developed under the Pallava ruler,
Rajsimhavarman also known as Narasimhavarman II.
 This stage marked
 From this stage onwards, stone-built temples became
the beginning of
more prominent compared to rock-cut temples.
rock-cut temples.
 Examples- Shore Temple is a temple at
 During this stage,
Mahabalipuram built during the reign of
the temples were
Narsimhavarman II. This group of temples is a
called mandapas, UNESCO World Heritage Site and is the oldest
unlike the Nagara structural temple (in contrast with rock cut temples)
temple style where mandapas meant assembly halls. in India. This temple is also called Rajasimheswaram
 Example- Mandagapattu rock cut temple- it is a single and it is the Crown of Pallava architecture.
rock cut temple built without any wood, brick or
metal. It is located near Villupuram in Tamil Nadu.
Large dwarpals were present at the entrance of the
temple which later became a characteristic of almost
all south Indian temples. With no other construction
materials used, it was truly an invention in the field of
architecture. The pillars are carved to look like they're
standing on the heads of lions.
 Mahendravarman I rock cut temples can be found in
Tamil Nadu. The most important among them are  Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram and the Shore
Mamandur, Pallavaram, Vallam, Mahendravadi and Temple at Mamallapura were built by using
Thalavanur sandstones. The Shore temple at Mamallapuram is
also filled with numerous sculptures.
Narasimha Group or Mamalla group (630 to 668
AD) Nandivarman Group (800 to 900 AD).
 This stage of temple architecture is named after the  Small temples were constructed during this period
Pallava ruler, Narasimhavarman I, also known as with features similar to the Dravidian style of temple
Mamalla. architecture.

7
 Examples- Vaikuntha Perumal temple is located at
Great Living Chola Temples is included in UNESCO
Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. It was built by
World Heritage site. Completed between early 11th
Nandivarman. It is one of the 108 holiest Shrines of
and the 12th century CE, the monuments include:
Vishnu. ● Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur
Temple Architecture of Cholas ● Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram
● Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
● The Chola period marked the culmination of Dravida
temple art.
Temple Architecture of Nayaka School
● The Chola temples were bigger in scale than anything
built by their predecessors, the Pallavas, the ● Presemce of Prakarns-huge corridors in the porticos
Chalukyas or the Pandyas. around the garbhagriha along with roofed ambulatory
● The pyramidal shaped vimana in Chola temples rises passageways. The temple walls are intricately carved.
a massive seventy metres (approximately two ● Another prominent feature of this style of temple is
hundred feet), topped by a monolithic shikhara which the presence of a large tank set slightly off the axis to
is an octagonal dome-shaped stupika. the main temple.
● At the corner of the Shikharas, one can find huge
Nandi figures.
● The dwarapalakas at the entrance to the mandapa
which started from the Pallava period became a
unique feature of the Chola Temples.
● Two large gopuras (gateway towers) are noticed for
the first time in Chola temples and these are heavily
decorated with sculptures.
● The vimana is decorated with hundreds of stucco
● The tank is surrounded by steps and a pillared portico.
figures. This tradition was carried forward by Maratha
The tank is used for the purpose of ritual bathing.
rulers too.
● Under the Nayaka style, the art of Gopurams reached
● The main deity of the temple is Shiva.
its prominence. The gopurams built during this phase
● The walls around the sanctum sanctorum are
were some of the largest gopurams in the world.
beautifully decorated with painted murals and
● Elaborate mandapas of hundred pillared types were
sculptures.
also constructed during the rule of the Nayaka rulers.
Examples of Chola temple architecture ● The pillars as well as the ceilings are decorated with
1. The Rajarajeswara or Brihadeswara temple at colorful paintings showing kings, queens, mythical
Tanjore/ Thanjavur- It is the world’s first complete animals with fantastic shapes and sizes.
“granite” temple. The temple was constructed during Example - Meenakshi- Sundareswarar temple at Madurai
the period of Rajraja Chola-I and is a part of UNESCO’s and is dedicated to goddess Meenakshi, the consort of
World Heritage sites. The Vimana of the temple tower lord Shiva.Shiva. The great temple complex actually has
is 216 Feet in height and is one of the tallest buildings. two shrines; the first one dedicated to Shiva as
2. Brihadeswara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram- Sundareswara and the second one to his wife Meenakshi.
built by by King Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I, There are 985 richly carved pillars within the temple
Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple is a Hindu temple complex adorned with the exquisite murals. The temple
dedicated to Shiva in Tamil Nadu. has the tallest gopuram in the world which is richly carved.

Vesara School of Temple Architecture

Flourished under the patronage of later
Chalukya rulers in the Karnataka region
around mid-seventh century AD.
● A hybrid of Nagara and Dravida styles.
● The temples under this school developed in Deccan
and Central India, between the Vindhyas and the river
Krishna.

8
● This style of temple architecture has also been called ● Badami cave temples are located at Badami. Made up
the “Karnataka style”. of red sandstone, these caves have three Brahmanical
● Following the Dravidian style, this school lays and one Jaina (Parshwavanath) and one natural
emphasis upon vimana and mandapa. Buddhist cave. The cave temples, mainly those at
● The shape of the tower was Pyramidical but height Badami, include fine sculptures of Vishnu.
was reduced (called Miniature Vimanas)- Vimana was ● The largest temple of Chalukyas of Badami is
crowned by a circular shikhara above the neck. Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, whose complex
● Open ambulatory passageway as seen in Nagara style encloses 30 sub shrines and a large Nadi mandapam.
temples. This temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
● Gopurams may or may not be present. Pattadakal Temple complex - UNESCO World
● Water tanks are present at some of the temples.
Heritage site
● The temple walls, pillars and the ceilings were
● The temple complex houses 10 temples- four of
intricately decorated with beautiful carvings.
them belong to Nagara school and the rest six show
Examples - Badami temple (Nagara and Dravida temples characteristics of the Dravida school.
are raised side by side in Badami), Durga Temple (Aihole), ● Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, is the largest
Keshava Temple (Somnathpur), Dodda Basappa temple at temple here. Its complex encloses 30 sub shrines
Dambal, etc. and a large Nadi mandapam. This was also the
earliest example of Shiva temples, which have a
Temple Architecture of Chalukyas
Nandi pavilion in front of the temple.
● Developed in the period between the 6th and the 8th
centuries during the Badami Chalukya period was
Temple Architecture of Rashtrakutas
called the “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata
Dravida architecture”. Rashtrakutas built rock-cut temples and shrines at Ajanta,
● Reddish-golden Sandstone was the principal building Ellora and Aurangabad. The Kailashnath temple at Ellora is
material for these temples. a magnificent example of their architectural style.
● The cave temples built by them depicted both Kailashnath temple at Ellora
religious and secular themes.
● The Kailashnath temple was built by the Rashtrakuta
ruler, Krishna I in the 8th century.
● It is carved out of one single rock measuring 200 feet
long, and 100 feet in breadth and height.
● Carved via the vertical excavation in which the carvers
started at the top of the original rock, and excavated
downward.
● It is a vast multi-storey structure with carvings on both
interior as well as the exterior walls. Temple’s bold
and spectacular carving depicts the Rashtrakuta style
of tall, powerfully formed figures reflecting spiritual
● The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
and physical poise.
● Height of storeys were minimized and arranged in
descending order of height from base to top with
much ornamentation in each storey.
● Early Chalukyan activity takes the form of rock-cut
caves whereas later activity is of structural temples.
● Chalukyan figures are distinguished by their slim bodies,
graceful long, oval faces; they are different from
contemporary western Deccan or Vakataka styles.
Examples - The earliest monument of Chalukyas of Badami
is the Ravana Phadi Cave at Aihole, not far from Badami. ● Ellora's Rashtrakuta-period sculpture is complex and
It was probably made around A.D. 550 and is dedicated to distinct from contemporary regional styles, the
Siva. One of the most noteworthy sculptures at the site is figures often larger than life-size, infused with
of Nataraja, surrounded by larger-than-life-size depictions unparalleled grandeur and the most overpowering
of the saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his energy. An example of this is the well- known Nandi
right. Shrine in Kailash temple.

9
● It has a three-tiered shikhara or tower rising to thirty ● A kalash stands on the top most portion of the temple
metres, which resembles the sikhara of the tower.
Mamallapuram rathas. ● Mythical women figures called Salabhanjika or
● The Mandapa has a flat roof which is supported by 16 madanika are used to decorate pillars. Sometimes,
pillars. these characters are portrayed engaging in artistic
● One of the sculptures of the temple shows the image activities like music, dance etc. It is a peculiar feature
of Goddess Durga slaying the Buffalo demon. of Hoysala sculpture.
● In another sculpture Ravana is shown lifting Mount ● The scenes from Ramayana, Mahabharata and
Kailash. Trembling of the mountain could be felt, and Puranas are depicted on the walls of the Hoysala
Parvati is shown greatly agitated, turning to Siva, temples.
grasping his hand in fear. ● There may be one or multiple shrines within the
● The deities in this temple belong to both the Shaivite temple complex.
as well as Vaishanv faith. ● The temples were built on an appraised platform
Ellora Caves- Ellora caves are located near Aurangabad in known as Jagati, which was about a metre high.
Maharashtra. The cave belongs to the 6th to 10th century ● The walls and stairs of the temples followed a zigzag
AD. It represents the marvel of the Indian Rock Cut pattern.
architecture and is one of the World Heritage sites ● The Hoysala temple architecture was heavily
inscribed on the UNESCO list in 1983. The caves belong to influenced by the Western Chalukyas, Cholas as well
three religions- The Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina, in as Pallavas, though there was a departure from the
which 12 are Buddhist Caves, 17 Hindu Caves and 5 Jaina Chalukyan style.
Caves. Oldest caves are Hindu Caves. Examples- Hoysaleswara temple at Halebid in Karnataka
was built in dark schist stone by the Hoysala king in 1150.
Temple Architecture of Hoysalas
1150. Another temple called the Chennakeshava temple
● Developed in the period between the 11th and 14th in Somnathpur, Karnataka built around 1268 AD under
centuries and is mostly concentrated in southern Narasimha III and the Kesava temple at Belur in Hassan
Karnataka with prominent seats being Belur, Halebid district of Karnataka built by Vishnuvardhana.
and Sringeri.
● Hoysala temples consist of a number of shrines
Vijayanagara Style of Temple Architecture
grouped together around a central pillared hall. It is ● Vijayanagar empire played a very important role in
designed in such a way that it represents the shape of the development of temple art and architecture
a star. This was known as the Stellate plan. between 1336 to 1672 AD.
● They designed temples at Halebid and Belur that ● Architecturally, Vijayanagar has synthesis of centuries
resemble lacework in stone. old Dravidian style and influence of Indo- Islamic style
● Soapstone was the principal building material. of Bijapur.
● The vimana in Hoysala temples are plain on the ● Local hard granite was the building material of choice
interiors while the exterior is intricately decorated due to its durability. Soapstone, which was soft and
with carvings. easily carved, was used for reliefs and sculptures.
● The ornamentation is complex, with a concentration ● The pillars are carved beautifully. Horse was the most
on ornamentation rather than movement or the grace depicted animal on the pillars.
of the human body. Hoysala sculptures are squat and ● Tall Raya Gopuram (gateways) which were previously
short, heavily embellished, or almost overloaded with present only at the entrance of the temples, were
ornamentation, but they are pleasing to look at. now built on all sides. These gateways were carved
with life-sized
figures of gods
and goddesses.
● More than one
mandapa in each
temple. The
central mandapa
was called the
kalyana mandapa (marriage halls).

10
● Temple walls were heavily decorated with carvings of ● Example- The Siddheshwara Mahadeva temple at
figures from Hindu mythology and geometrical Barakar built in the 9th century shows a tall curving
patterns. shikara crowned by a large amalaka and is an example
● They introduced the concept of secular buildings of the early pala style. The rock cave temple at
within the temple premises (Example-Lotus Mahal). Kahalgaon (9th century) shows the gabled vault roof
● Presence of an Amman shrine was meant for the characteristic of South Indian architecture.
consort of God.
● Vijayanagar emperors caused outstanding portraits to Sun Temples in India
be carved by the sculptors to immortalise them in the Sun temples are dedicated to the Sun god Surya. There are
vicinity of their favourite deities. many Sun temples in the country.
● During this period illustration in narrative forms of the
Ramayana and Krishna, Bal Lila became favourite Konark Sun Temple
themes. ● Constructed by the Eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha
● Their sculpture, too, reveals the presence of
Deva I in about 1250 A.D in Odisha.
foreigners on occasion, despite being essentially
● This temple was included in UNESCO World Heritage
derived from and consciously trying to revive Chola
Site in 1984.
ideals.
● The Sun Temple is a classic illustration of the Odisha
● Vasanta mandapa was added for gathering of
style of Architecture or Kalinga Architecture.
devotees, and a hall of dance at Lepakshi was added.
Examples- Vittalaswami temple and the Hazara Rama
temple of Deva Raya I.

Pala and Sena School of Temple Architecture

● The Palas were Buddhist rulers and built many
Buddhist monastic sites, while the Sena rulers were
Hindus. Temples reflected the influence of both
religions. Temples in the area are built in the Vanga
style.
● The temple faces the east so that the first rays of
● Similar to the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut, the
sunrise strikes the main entrance of the temple.
temples under this
● Due to its dark colour, this temple was called the
style had a curve
“Black Pagoda”.
or a sloping roof. It
● Its shikhara reached 70m in height, which, proving too
is known across
heavy for its site, fell in the nineteenth century. The
North India as the
jagamohana (mandapa) of the temple has survived.
Bangla roof.
● Sun god, its presiding deity, is depicted here and is
● Principal building
portrayed in the typical north Indian manner, wearing
material-
Terracotta bricks boots, chain-mail armor, holding a lotus in each hand.
● A tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka ● The temple represents a chariot of the Sun God, with
● Stone- principal element used for sculptures. twelve pairs of wheels (representing the months of
However, metals are also used in some cases. the year) drawn by seven horses evoking its
● Mahayana phase of Buddha and Bodhisattva images movement across the heavens.
used in temple ● In between the wheels of the temple structure, the
● Figurines are highly carved. body is decorated with reliefs of lions, musicians,
● Contemporaneous Odisha temples- with the passage dancers, and erotic images.
of time, this simple form becomes loftier. Many ● On the temple’s southern wall, there is a sculpture of
temples from the ninth to the twelfth centuries were Sun God made of green stone.
found in the Purulia District. When dams were ● Chandrabhaga Mela around the month of February is
constructed in the area, they were submerged. held every year.

11
Modhera Surya Temple, Gujarat ● The idols inside the Vimana Gopuram are carved from
a single black stone. The Sun God, Dwarapalakas,
● Built between 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I
saints, Chariot, Horses and the Saradhi are the main
of the Solanki dynasty. The temple is located on the
figures one can see which are included in the single
banks of the river Pushpavati.
stone inside the main temple.
● The hundred square metre rectangular kunda (tank)
is perhaps the grandest temple tank in India. Suryanaar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil Nadu)
● 108 miniature shrines are built in between the steps
● This temple is considered one of the nine Navagraha
inside the tank.
temples in Tamil Nadu.
● The halls and the pillars of the temples are extensively
● Built during the reign of Kulottunga Choladeva (AD
carved.
1060-1118) in the 11th century with later additions
● A massive ornamental arch- torana welcomes visitors
from the Vijayanagara period.
to the sabha mandapa (assembly hall), which is
accessible on all sides, as was the custom in western Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Pradesh)
and central Indian temples at the time.
● Built in the prehistoric time by the king of Datia.
● The temple contains carvings of twenty-one triangles,
which represents the 21 phases of the Sun.
● Below the temple, Pahooj river flows. Sulphur content
found in the water of Pahuj river is helpful in treating
skin diseases.

Temple Architecture at the Hills

● In the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and
Martand Sun Temple, Kashmir Kashmir; a unique form of architecture developed.
● Kashmir being in close proximity to the Gandhara
● Built by the Karkota dynasty, the sun temple was built
regions (Taxila, Peshawar, etc) was heavily influenced
by the third ruler of the Karkota Dynasty, Lalitaditya
by the Gandhara style by 5th century CE.
Muktapida, in the 8th century CE. Martand in Sanskrit
● The Gandhara influence got mixed with Gupta and
means Surya.
post-Gupta traditions that were brought to it from
● The structure is constructed of limestone, and the
Sarnath, Mathura and even centres in Gujarat and
entire complex has been built on top of a plateau near
Anantnag. The Government of India has opened the Bengal.
ruined temple complex for tourists, and this site is
considered to be of National, Historical and
Architectural importance and hence comes under The
Archaeological Survey of India.

Dakshinaarka Temple, Gaya (Bihar)

● Built by King Prataparuda of Warangal in 13th century
AD.
● Stone used to carve the Sun God is made of granite
● Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks frequently
and the deity wears Persian attire like waist girdle,
travelled to the hills resulting in intermingling of both
boots and a jacket.
Hindu and Buddhist traditions in the hills.
Suryanarayana Swamy Temple, Arasavalli ● The hills' architecture had the characteristic of
(Andhra Pradesh) wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
● At a few hilly regions we find main garbhagriha and
● It is a 7th-century AD Sun Temple built by king
shikhara made in a rekha-prasada or latina style,
Devendra Varma, ruler of the Kalinga Dynasty. The
while the mandapa is of an older form of wooden
beauty of this temple is its construction which is done
architecture.
in such a way that rays of Sun fall on the feet of the
● A few temples take the shape of a pagoda.
statue (at Garbha gudi) during March and September
● The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant
in early hours (Sun rise time) and stay for some time.
in terms of architecture.

12
● A temple called Pandrethan, built during the 8th and 2. Indonesian Architecture- This style of temple
9th centuries, is built on a plinth built in the middle of architecture flourished in the period between 7th to
a tank. 15th century AD. The Indonesian temples belong to
● The images of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at both Buddhist as well as Hindu religions. Temples in
the Laksna-Devi Mandir suggest the influence of the this region are called “Candi”. Inspired by Indian
post-Gupta tradition. temple architecture, the temples here have a
● At Kumaon, temples like Jageshwar in Almora, and pyramidal tower above it and a portico for entrance.
Champavat near Pithoragarh, are examples of nagara The largest Buddhist temple is found at Borobudur in
architecture in the region. Indonesia constructed in the 8th century AD.
3. Champa Architecture- This style of temple
Jaina Temple Architecture architecture flourished in parts of Vietnam between
● Jains were prolific temple builders like the Hindus, the 6th and 16th century AD. Red bricks were used for
and their sacred shrines and pilgrimage spots are to building temples. The most important remaining sites
be found across the length and breadth of India. of Cham bricks temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn
● The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong
Bihar. Many of these sites are famous for early Garai near Phan Rang.
Buddhist shrines. In the Deccan, some of the most 4. Myanmar Architecture - Myanmar's architecture is
architecturally important Jain sites can be found in tied to ancient Indian culture, and can be traced to the
Ellora and Aihole. country's earliest known inhabitants. During the Pyu
● In central India, Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi and period, cylindrical stupas with four archways—often
Gwalior have some excellent examples of Jain with a hti (umbrella) on top—were built. The Mon and
temples. Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines Pyu people were the first two influential groups to
and at Sravana Belagola the famous statue of migrated to Myanmar, and the first Indo-Chinese
Gomateshwara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali adherents of Theravada Buddhism. Beikthano, one of
which stands eighteen metres or fifty-seven feet high, the first Pyu centers, contains urbanesque
is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standin foundations which include a monastery and stupa-like
structure. It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the structures.
General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the Ganga Bagan, with over 10,000 of Myanmar's red brick stupas
Kings of Mysore. and pagodas, had become a center of Buddhist
architecture by the mid-12th century. During this period,
International Influence of Indian Temple the Pyu-style stupas were transformed into monuments
Architecture reminiscent of alms bowls or gourd-shaped domes,
unbaked brick, tapered and rising roofs, Buddha niches,
As part of Greater India and propagation of Buddhism
polylobed arches and ornamental doorways influenced by
from India to various parts of the world like Srilanka,
India's Pala Empire and its monuments. Stucco was widely
Burma, China, South-east Asian nations, etc, most of the
used here.
temples have been influenced by the style of temple
architecture that Stupa Architecture
developed in India.
The stupa is a burial mound, hemispherical
The propagation of
in shape, containing relics of Buddhist
Buddhism from
monks and nuns. It has religious and
India to Burma led
cultural significance. Stupas’ construction
to construction of
began in the Vedic time period and gained significance
many temples and
during Ashoka's period. The Buddhists popularized the
statues to honour
stupa.
Buddha in Burma.
1. Khmer Temple Architecture- Flourished in the Component of Stupas
regions of present-day Cambodia. One of the
Medhi: It is the core of the Stupa, made up of unburnt
magnificent examples of this type of temple
bricks, containing the relics of Buddhist nuns & monks
architecture is the Angkor Vat temple of Cambodia.
Anda: Large hemispherical dome made up of bricks.
Built in the 12th century AD, it is the world’s largest
Toran: The entry gateways generally constructed in all
Hindu temple. Sandstone and laterite are the
four directions, containing intricate carvings and
principal building materials used in the temple. The
decorated with wooden sculptures. Each torana consists
temples belonging to this khmer style are enclosed by
of two vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on top. The
a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary
bars contain exquisite carvings on front and back.
in the middle.

13
 Sandstone pillar edict of Ashoka on Sanchi Pillar
“The path is prescribed both for the monks and for the
nuns. As long as (my) sons and great-grandsons (shall
reign; and) as long as the Moon and the Sun (shall
endure), the monk or nun who shall cause divisions in
the Sangha, shall be compelled to put on white robes
and to reside apart. For what is my desire? That the
Sangha may be united and may long endure”

Pradakshina Path: Open ambulatory passageway used for Piprahwa Stupa

walking around, as a token of worship
Harmika: a small platform with a railing located at the very ● Present in Uttar
Pradesh, it is the
top of a stupa
oldest stupa.
Chattra: a triple-umbrella form supported on a central
Ancient residential
pillar/rod.
complexes and
Yasti: the central rod or pillar on which Chattra are located shrines were
Vedika: Stupa is enclosed by the vedika uncovered at the
Symbols: In the early stages, Buddha was represented adjacent mound of
through symbols that represented the different events of Ganwaria.
Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, ● Piprahwa-Ganwaria is also regarded as the ancient
stupas, etc. city of Kapilavastu, the capital of the Shakya kingdom,
where Siddhartha Gautama spent the first 29 years of
Maurayan Stupas his life.
After the death of Gautam Budhha, nine stupas were
Bairat Stupa, Rajasthan
constructed. (Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa,
Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and ● Grand stupa with a circular mound and a
Pippalivana.). During the Ashoka period, 84000 stupas circumambulatory path.
were constructed. Examples include ● Made of polished sandstone. The surface is heavily
polished.
The Great Sanchi Stupa, Madhya Pradesh
● Construction began in third century BCE
● UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
● Many small stupas are there; three main ones – stupa Depiction of Buddha in early phase
1, stupa 2 and stupa 3. Stupa 1 is also called the Great Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints,
Stupa at Sanchi. It is the most prominent and the oldest stupas, lotus throne, chakra, etc. This indicates either
and is believed to have relics of the two great disciples simple worship, or paying respect, or at times depicts
of the Buddha, Sariputta and Mahamogallena. historicisation of life events.
● Stupas were built from grants given by the business Gradually, narrative became a part of the Buddhist
community of Vidisha though believed to be originally tradition. Thus, events from the life of the Buddha, the
commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BCE. Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and torans
of the stupas. Mainly synoptic narrative, continuous
● It was built from burnt bricks and mud mortar initially.
narrative and episodic narrative are used in the pictorial
Later it wasrebuilt using stones by Shungas in 2nd
tradition.
century B.C, doubling its size.
While events from the life of the Buddha became an
● 3 stupas - along with 4 Toranas, Jataka tale’s important theme in all the Buddhist monuments, the
inscriptions, use of Bhahmni and Kharoshti script. Jataka stories also became equally important for
● Gateways and banister were built during Satvahana sculptural decorations. The main events associated
rule around 70 BC. Using stone slabs, the stupas with the Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted
doubled to their original size. Flattened near the top were events related to the birth, renunciation,
and 3 umbrellas (Yasti) were placed on top as a enlightenment, dhammachakra- pravartana, and
symbol of Dharma. mahaparinibbana (liberation from the cycle of birth.)
● Four decorated toranas, depicting Buddha’s stories, Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted
Shalbhanjikas – a lady holding the branch of a tree and are Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru
Jataka stories. Lion capital similar to the one at Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
Sarnath is also present here.

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Sarnath/ Dhamek Stupas From the second century BCE onwards, we get many
● Near Varasnasi, Uttar Pradesh inscriptional evidence mentioning donors for
● Also known by other names like Rishipatana, construction and maintenance of stupas. The pattern of
Mrigadava and Mrigadaya. The word Sarnath comes patronage has been a very collective one and there are
from a corruption of the name Saranganatha (lord of very few examples of royal patronage. Patrons range
deer). from lay devotees to gahapatis and kings. Donations by
● Built by Ashoka, later rebuilt in the Gupta period. the guilds are also mentioned at several sites. However,
● Lord Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath about 4 there are very few inscriptions mentioning the names
noble truths. of artisans such as Kanha at Pitalkhora and his disciple
● Sir Alexander Cunningham (1st - General of Balaka at Kondane caves in Maharashtra. Artisans’
Archaeological Survey of India), excavated the categories like stone carvers, goldsmiths, stone-
Dhamekh, Dharmarajika, and Chaukhandi stupas polishers, carpenters, etc. are also mentioned in the
between 1834 and 1836. inscriptions.

Chaukhandi Stupa Cave Architecture

● Chaukhandi Stupa has been declared as a
Cave architecture is often called as Rock-
monument of national importance by the
cut architecture. Indian rock-cut
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
architecture is one of the main forms of
● It is an ancient Buddhist site in Sarnath, Uttar
architecture seen in caves. It is the practice
Pradesh.
of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural
● The octagonal tower on top is a Mughal monument
rock. Along with sculptures some caves are famous for
built to commemorate Humayun’s visit to this
painting like the Ajanta caves. The earliest caves were
place
natural caves used by people for a variety of purposes such
as shrines and shelters. Indian rock-cut architecture is
Amravati Stupa
mostly religious in nature. There are more than 1,500
● Constructed during the period of the first and second rock-cut structures in India.
centuries CE. Rock-cut cave architecture emerged during the Mauryan
● Pradakshinapatha (Circumbulatory path) enclosed within
Period. They were constructed by carving out of solid
a vedika portrayed with much narrative sculpture.
natural rock. The earliest cave temples include the Bhaja
● Domical stupa structure covered with relief stupa
Caves, the Karla Caves, the Bedsa Caves, the Kanheri
sculptural slabs.
Caves, and Ajanta Caves.
● The Torana (Entrance gate) of the Amaravati Stupa
has disappeared over time.
● The stupa art forms present here depicts the events from
the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories.
● As in Sanchi Stupa, the early phase of Amaravati stupa
is devoid of Buddha images except in the later stage
during the second and third centuries CE Buddha
images were carved upon the drum slabs and at many
Viharas- caves were constructed for Jain and Buddhist
other places.
monks' residences. The plan of the viharas consists of a
Nagarjuna Konda Stupa veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the hall. Many

● An inscription of Gautamiputra Vijaya Satakarni has of the early vihara caves are carved with interior
also been discovered at the site, and proves that decorative motifs like chaitya arches and the vedica
Buddhism had spread in the region by this time. designs over the cell doors of the cave.
● The Amravati school of sculpture influence is seen. Chaityas- These are the places of worship used by the
Buddhist monks. It has an object of worship called
‘Stupa’In Hinayana period (earlier Buddhism) symbolic

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