Smartcities 04 00026 With Cover
Smartcities 04 00026 With Cover
Smartcities 04 00026 With Cover
Article
Special Issue
Feature Papers for Smart Cities
Edited by
Prof. Dr. Pierluigi Siano
https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities4020026
smart cities
Article
An Enhanced Inverse Filtering Methodology for Drive-By
Frequency Identification of Bridges Using Smartphones in
Real-Life Conditions
Nima Shirzad-Ghaleroudkhani and Mustafa Gül *
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada;
shirzadg@ualberta.ca
* Correspondence: mustafa.gul@ualberta.ca; Tel.: +1-780-492-3002
Abstract: This paper develops an enhanced inverse filtering-based methodology for drive-by fre-
quency identification of bridges using smartphones for real-life applications. As the vibration
recorded on a vehicle is dominated by vehicle features including suspension system and speed
as well as road roughness, inverse filtering aims at suppressing these effects through filtering out
vehicle- and road-related features, thus mitigating a few of the significant challenges for the indirect
identification of the bridge frequency. In the context of inverse filtering, a novel approach of construct-
ing a database of vehicle vibrations for different speeds is presented to account for the vehicle speed
effect on the performance of the method. In addition, an energy-based surface roughness criterion
is proposed to consider surface roughness influence on the identification process. The successful
performance of the methodology is investigated for different vehicle speeds and surface roughness
levels. While most indirect bridge monitoring studies are investigated in numerical and laboratory
conditions, this study proves the capability of the proposed methodology for two bridges in a real-life
Citation: Shirzad-Ghaleroudkhani,
scale. Promising results collected using only a smartphone as the data acquisition device corroborate
N.; Gül, M. An Enhanced Inverse
Filtering Methodology for Drive-By
the fact that the proposed inverse filtering methodology could be employed in a crowdsourced
Frequency Identification of Bridges framework for monitoring bridges at a global level in smart cities through a more cost-effective and
Using Smartphones in Real-Life efficient process.
Conditions. Smart Cities 2021, 4,
499–513. https://doi.org/ Keywords: inverse filtering; frequency identification; acceleration signal; indirect bridge monitor-
10.3390/smartcities4020026 ing; smartphone
technology development, there are more data sources available through crowdsourcing
methods, which can be employed for the monitoring and management of cities [11].
Nowadays, smartphones are the most popular smart devices in the world. These
devices are not only a means of communication but also compromise many different
sensors. These sensors provide data that could be employed at a local and global level to
increase the efficiency of the management and decision making in a smart city through
crowdsourced frameworks. With regard to the transportation system, many studies have
investigated such crowdsourced methods for traffic monitoring and management [12,13].
Monitoring bridge structures as key components of the transportation infrastructure
is a popular topic among researchers. Most conventional monitoring methods focus on
using fixed sensors including accelerometers and strain gauges to collect data from bridge
structures [14–17]. Despite their effectiveness, the efficiency of employing these methods
for a population of bridges at a global level is a major concern. To address this issue,
indirect bridge monitoring methods [18] were introduced that focused on using a moving
sensor inside a vehicle as the data collector. As such, one mobile sensor can collect data
from many bridges with no fixed instrumentation required, leading to a more efficient
and cost-effective bridge monitoring. Furthermore, previous studies [19] have shown that
smartphones can systematically be utilized as fixed sensors to collect vibration data from
bridge structures for dynamic analysis. Hence, recorded vibrations on the smartphones of
the vehicle passengers can potentially be collected through a crowdsourced framework
and analyzed for bridge monitoring purposes.
The application of crowdsourced methods for monitoring transportation infrastructure
has recently become the subject of many studies [20–22]. For instance, Mei and Gül [23]
presented a damage detection-based framework using smartphone data through laboratory
experiments. They showed the potential of using crowdsourced methods for detecting
damage on a bridge. In addition to damage detection, the frequency identification of
the bridges through crowdsourced methods was investigated. For instance, Matarazzo
et al. [24] conducted real-life research on the possibility of using smartphone data for the
frequency identification of bridges.
From a bridge damage assessment point of view, many studies have been dedicated
to identifying bridge dynamic properties, representing the structure state. The main idea
was based on the fact that a damaged structure would have different dynamic features
in comparison with the healthy one. These studies could be classified into detecting
bridge natural frequencies [25], identifying bridge mode shapes [26], focusing on bridge
damping [27] and considering bridge deflection and strain responses [28]. Regarding the
natural frequencies of the bridge, a few studies conducted a full modal analysis of the
bridge to detect all natural frequencies using ambient vibration tests [29] while others
focused on detecting the fundamental frequency of the bridge through controlled free
vibration tests [30]. Due to the complexity of the indirect monitoring of bridges in real-life
conditions, this study will focus on detecting only the fundamental frequency of the bridge
using ambient vibrations.
In the authors’ research group, first the robustness of the frequency identification of
the bridge against vehicle features was investigated [31]. In that study, a lab-scale experi-
ment was conducted to investigate the potential of detecting the bridge frequency using
vibrations recorded on a smartphone in vehicles with different features. The identification
process in that study was solely based on raw vibrations of the vehicle without considering
the operational effects that dominate real-life applications. Later, a novel methodology of
an inverse filtering technique was proposed and put into practice in a controlled laboratory
experiment [32]. That methodology significantly improved the identification of the bridge
frequency through filtering out vehicle-related features from vibrations. However, major
limitations were considered in that experiment including the constant speed of the vehicle
and also similar surface roughness level throughout the entire test.
In this study, as the next step, the limitations of the inverse filtering methodology
are addressed through a new framework and a real-life investigation of the proposed
Smart Cities 2021, 4 501
enhanced approach is conducted for two bridges in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. In the
following, first the methodology of inverse filtering is explained and the real-life data
analysis process and its challenges are addressed. Next, the results for the two target
bridges are provided. Finally, the addressed methods for real-life conditions and their
effect on the inverse filtering performance are discussed.
2. Methodology
In this section, first the concept of the vehicle-bridge coupled relationship as the main
notion behind indirect bridge monitoring and the idea of inverse filtering will be explained.
Afterwards, the process of data collection and analysis as well as the inverse filtering
application will be discussed.
2.1. Concepts
2.1.1. Vehicle-Bridge Interaction
A moving vehicle acts as an exciter for a bridge structure. Meanwhile, the bridge
itself affects the vehicle vibration as well. This system of vibration is governed through a
coupled equation known as the vehicle-bridge interaction. One of the first studies on this
concept was Yang and Yau [33]. They employed a simple 2D problem where the bridge
was modeled using a beam model and a moving mass-spring system represented vehicle
model. The resulting dynamic equation derived in that study clearly proves the interaction
between the bridge and vehicle vibrations:
′′ ′′′
m( x )ub ( x, t) + E( x ) I ( x )ub ( x, t) = c( x, t)
′′ . (1)
mv uv (t) + k v [uv (t) − ub ( x, t)] = 0
In Equation (1), these parameters represent the features of the vehicle model: x as
the position along the bridge, v as the speed, mv and kv as the mass and stiffness and uv
as the vertical displacement relative to the initial condition. The parameters representing
bridge features are: m as the distributed mass per unit length, E as the elastic modulus,
I as the moment of inertia of the section and ub as the vertical displacement relative
to the equilibrium position. In addition to these parameters, t represents the time, c is
the contact force between the vehicle and the bridge and prime notation denotes the
time-derivative function. In fact, this system of equations comprises governing dynamic
equilibrium equations of the bridge and the vehicle, respectively. Equation (1) demonstrates
that any solution for the vehicle vibration will have bridge dynamic characteristics as
well and vice versa. As a result, the recorded vibrations of a vehicle moving over the
bridge contains dynamic features of the bridge, which can be extracted through signal
processing techniques. This notion was later investigated by many other studies [28,34] in
the literature.
into the frequency domain and then the filter shape is defined using the inverse of this
off-bridge spectrum using the equation below:
1
F [k] = (2)
X [k]
where X denotes the magnitude spectrum of the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT)
of the off-bridge acceleration signals and F represents inverse filter shape. Later, the filter
will be applied to the recorded signal while the vehicle is moving over the bridge, i.e., an
on-bridge signal, and the bridge frequency will be extracted from the resulting inverse
filtered spectrum. The filtered spectrum will be calculated as follows:
Y [k]
Y f [ k ] = F [ k ]Y [ k ] = (3)
X [k]
In Equation (3), Y[k] and Yf [k] denote the unfiltered and filtered on-bridge spectra,
respectively. This process is illustrated in Figure 1. for a sample of real-life data collected
from the Walterdale Bridge described in the following sections. In Figure 1a, the off-bridge
spectrum and its constructed inverse filter shape are illustrated with black and blue curves,
respectively, while Figure 1b represents the on-bridge spectrum and the inverse filtered
spectrum through black and blue curves, respectively. Note that the fundamental frequency
of the bridge is shown with the dashed red line. As seen, Figure 1a demonstrates that the
inverse filter suppresses the frequencies with higher amplitudes in the off-bridge spectrum,
representing the major frequencies with the vehicle-related sources while amplifying lower
amplitudes, yielding a clearer detection of an external vibrational source. The successful
performance of the filter in Figure 1b shows the advantage of employing an inverse
filtering methodology for bridge frequency detection. However, many factors may affect
the performance of the filter, which are discussed in more detail in the next sections.
Acceleration [m/s2]
Bridge frequency
the recordings were conducted is a Honda Civic sedan. The placement of the smartphone
inside the vehicle is also shown in Figure 2c.
speed values are equal will be stored in the database. The process of speed categorization
for a sample of speed data is illustrated in Figure 4. As seen, the shaded area in Figure 4b
represents the selected constant speed segments, which are stored in the database to be
later employed in the inverse filtering process.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Detecting on-bridge (red line) and off-bridge (green line) segments using GPS history for two samples of (a) the
High Level Bridge and (b) the Walterdale Bridge in Edmonton. The map is the courtesy of openstreetmap.org.
Speed [km/h]
(a)
Speed [km/h]
(b)
Time [min]
Figure 4. A sample of (a) the continuous raw speed data and (b) the categorized constant speed time frame selection for
the database.
Acceleration [m/s2]
On-bridge
Acceleration [m/s2]
Off-bridge
Figure 5. A sample of on-bridge and corresponding off-bridge acceleration signals for two different surface roughness
levels of (a) low and (b) high, recorded under the same speed of 50 km/h.
Smart Cities 2021, 4 506
Unlike on-bridge acceleration data, which are limited due to the length of a bridge,
there are more off-bridge data recorded in the database per each vehicle speed. Thus,
instead of considering all speed categorized off-bridge data as one signal, different windows
are considered in order to find the best matching surface roughness level. In this study,
windows of three seconds long with a 25% overlap are considered, which are applied to the
off-bridge database and the best matching SRC window is selected for the inverse filtering
step. This process is illustrated in Figure 6 where a sample of off-bridge acceleration data
is shown and two windows with a relatively large SRC difference are shown. As a result,
based on the on-bridge data, the closest SRC, i.e., best matching roughness level, is selected
for the inverse filtering process.
Acceleration [m/s2]
Time [sec]
Figure 6. A sample of an off-bridge signal and two selected windows with surface roughness criterion (SRC) values of 2
(m/s2 )2 (left) and 0.3 (m/s2 )2 (right) recorded under the vehicle speed of 50 km/h.
Raw Raw
acceleration location
signal (GPS) data
Bridge
detection
On-bridge Off-bridge
acceleration acceleration
signal signal
Speed Speed
Categorization Categorization
Matching
speed
Energy-based
SRC
Energy-based
Energy-based
windowed
on-bridge
off-bridge
signals
signals
Matching
SRC
Applying Applying
DFT DFT
Inverse
Filtering
Figure 7. Flowchart of the proposed enhanced inverse filtering methodology for bridge frequency detection in real-
life conditions.
Smart Cities 2021, 4 508
3. Results
In this section, the proposed methodology was tested in real-life practice for two
different bridges in Edmonton, i.e., the High Level Bridge, a steel truss bridge with a
length of 777 m built in 1913 and the Walterdale Bridge, a through-arch steel bridge
with a total length of 214 m built in 2017, shown in Figure 8. Both bridges span over
North Saskatchewan River that passes through the city. The fundamental frequencies of
the bridges were captured through a frequency analysis of the recorded vibration under
normal loading conditions. In that test, one minute long acceleration signals of bridge
vibrations were recorded at one quarter, one third and one half of the length of the bridge
using a standalone wireless accelerometer under the sampling frequency of 512 Hz and
the first peak among all of those spectra was detected as the fundamental frequency. The
identified frequencies were 2.8 Hz for the High Level Bridge and 2.1 Hz for the Walterdale
Bridge. The spectra representing the middle point vibrations of the two bridges are shown
in Figure 9. Note that these vibrational data were collected on a sunny summer day under
the temperature of 20–26 ◦ C. It is expected that the fundamental frequency of the bridges
would slightly change in different environmental conditions, the effect of which is not
in the scope of this study. However, these effects will be implemented in future studies
through integrating artificial intelligence methods [39–41].
(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) The High Level Bridge and (b) the Walterdale Bridge that are considered in this study.
Acceleration [m/s2]
Figure 9. A sample of the ambient vibration spectrum of (a) the High Level Bridge and (b) the Walterdale Bridge recorded
at the middle point of the bridges.
The inverse filtered spectra for the High Level Bridge and the Walterdale Bridge are
presented in Figures 10 and 11, respectively. Each figure consists of four plots organized
in two rows representing different speed ranges of 40 to 50 and 50 to 60 km/h and two
columns representing different surface roughness levels with the SRC ranges of 0 to 0.5
and 0.5 to 1 (m/s2 )2 . In each plot, the original unfiltered on-bridge spectrum is illustrated
Smart Cities 2021, 4 509
with the blue color while the black color represents its inverse filtered spectrum. Note that
the dashed red line denotes the fundamental frequency of the bridge. As seen, in most
on-bridge cases, it was impossible to detect the bridge frequency with the raw unfiltered
data due to the presence of vehicle vibrational features as well as the road roughness effect.
However, the inverse filtering methodology together with the proposed speed database
and surface roughness criterion was successful in detecting the fundamental frequency
of the bridge. It should be noted that these data were collected on different days and
the variations of environmental conditions, specifically the temperature, would cause a
slight difference in the detected frequency of the bridge. It is expected that after applying
the environmental adjustment methods to the proposed inverse filtering technique, these
effective factors will also be addressed.
0 < SRC < 0.5 [(m/s2)2] 0.5 < SRC < 1 [(m/s2)2]
Acceleration [m/s2]
40 < V < 50 [km/h]
Acceleration [m/s2]
50 < V < 60 [km/h]
Figure 10. On-bridge spectra (blue) and their corresponding inversed filtered spectra (black) for the High Level Bridge
considering different vehicle speeds and surface roughness conditions.
0 < SRC < 0.5 [(m/s2)2] 0.5 < SRC < 1 [(m/s2)2]
Acceleration [m/s2]
40 < V < 50 [km/h]
Acceleration [m/s2]
50 < V < 60 [km/h]
Figure 11. On-bridge spectra (blue) and their corresponding inversed filtered spectra (black) for the Walterdale Bridge
considering different vehicle speeds and surface roughness conditions.
Smart Cities 2021, 4 510
4. Discussion
Following the successful performance of the proposed methodology in the previ-
ous section, its effectiveness against two major factors in the indirect bridge frequency
identification, i.e., vehicle speed and road roughness, is investigated in this section.
Figure 12. Two samples of off-bridge data recorded on the vehicle with a speed of (a) 55 km/h and (b) 52.5 km/h together
with their resulting inverse filtered spectra using a sample of on-bridge data recorded with a speed of 55 km/h on the
Walterdale Bridge under a similar surface roughness level.
SRCs of 0.7 (m/s2 )2 and 0.42 (m/s2 )2 , respectively, are presented in columns (a) and (b)
of the first row of Figure 13. In addition, their corresponding inverse filter was designed
and applied to a sample of on-bridge data recorded on the Walterdale Bridge on a surface
with an SRC of 0.7 (m/s2 )2 and their resulting inverse filtered spectra are presented in the
second row of Figure 13. All of these spectra were recorded on a similar vehicle moving at
a speed of 50 km/h. Note that the fundamental frequency of the bridge is shown with a
dashed line. As seen, although the speed of the vehicle in both the on-bridge and off-bridge
spectra was similar, the difference in the surface roughness levels made it impossible for
the inverse filtering to extract the bridge frequency. In fact, the surface roughness was
one of the sources that significantly affected the frequency content and hence the shape of
the spectrum of the recorded acceleration signals. As a result, any comparison between
the frequency content of on-bridge and off-bridge spectra needs to be under similar or
close surface roughness conditions. The successful performance of the inverse filtering
in the previous section demonstrated that the proposed SRC was efficient in detecting
these similar surface conditions. Note that the results in Figure 13 demonstrated that the
methodology worked properly for relatively high surface roughness levels as well although
the vehicle features dominate vibrations over such surfaces making the bridge frequency
identification challenging.
Acceleration [m/s2]
Off-bridge
Inverse filtered on-bridge
Figure 13. Two samples of off-bridge data recorded on surfaces with SRCs of (a) 0.7 (m/s2 )2 and (b) 0.42 (m/s2 )2 together
with their resulting inverse filtered spectra using a sample of on-bridge data recorded on a surface with an SRC of 0.7 (m/s2 )
on the Walterdale Bridge under a car speed of 50 km/h.
5. Conclusions
This paper proposed an enhanced inverse filtering methodology for the real-life
applications of the drive-by frequency identification of bridges using smartphones through
a new framework. Two major limitations of the previously proposed methodology were
addressed here. First, it was proposed that through developing a database of off-bridge
acceleration signals per different vehicle speeds, it would be possible to consider speed
variations between off-bridge and on-bridge signals. In addition, a novel surface roughness
criterion was defined based on the average energy level of the acceleration signal. Thus, the
challenge of discrepancies between surface roughness levels of off-bridge and on-bridge
conditions was also eliminated. The successful performance of the proposed approach
for two real-scale bridges demonstrated the capability of the application for future bridge
Smart Cities 2021, 4 512
monitoring purposes. As all of the required data including the acceleration signals and the
GPS data were collected from a smartphone, the implementation of the proposed method
through a crowdsourced framework would significantly reduce the cost of monitoring a
plethora of bridges in future smart cities. It should be noted that such methods can easily
be extended to the embedded sensors in autonomous and connected vehicles.
It is worth noting that that the proposed methodology focused on detecting the
fundamental frequency of the bridge only and further improvement is needed to detect
higher modes of vibrations. Moreover, there were other important factors affecting the
identification process specifically environmental effects such as temperature changes. These
factors can drastically change the bridge frequency and should be considered for health
monitoring purposes. In future studies and through further developments of the proposed
methodology, a higher accuracy of frequency detection could be achieved, which is more
suitable for damage detection purposes.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.G.; Data curation, N.S.-G.; Formal analysis, N.S.-G.;
Funding acquisition, M.G.; Investigation, M.G.; Methodology, N.S.-G.; Project administration M.G.;
Resources, M.G.; Supervision, M.G.; Validation, (N.S.-G.; Visualization, N.S.-G.; Writing—original
draft, N.S.-G.; Writing—review and editing, M.G.). All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the corresponding author’s Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Grant.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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