The Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons
that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body’s electrical
wiring. Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
There are two types of nervous system.
•Central nervous system or CNS- made up of the brain and spinal cord.
•Peripheral nervous system or PNS- made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord
and extend to all parts of the body.

The nervous system enables us to respond quickly and immediately to stimuli (changes) in our
environment. When a stimulus is received, it is transmitted very quickly from the point of
detection to the point where the body can make sense of the information and respond to it
appropriately. The messages are transmitted through the body along nerve fibres using electrical
and chemical means.
The body collects the information about the environment from sensory cells called receptors
which are located in sense organs, such as the eyes and ears. This is often the result of a change
in the environment called a stimulus. The information is sent through the PNS and CNS, where
decisions are made about how the body should respond. Messages are sent back through the PNS
to effectors, which are muscles and various glands, and these bring about the response.
How are messages sent through the nervous system?
When a receptor picks up a stimulus, this information is sent as an electrical impulse (message)
through specialised cells called neurones. A bundle of neurones is called a nerve.
Types of neurones
There are three types of neurones involved in transmitting electrical impulses around the body.
Neurone Function
sensory sends electrical impulses (messages)
neurone from the receptors to the central
nervous system (CNS).

Relay/intermediate Relays (receive and pass on) the

neurone messages within the CNS; it is a
connector between the sensory
neurone and the motor neurone within
the CNS. It acts as an interneuron
because it transmits impulses between
the senory and motor neurons.
motor neurone transfers information from the CNS to
the effector organs.
Sensory neurone

Relay neurone

Motor neurone
The cell body contains the nucleus of the nerve cell. Extending from the cell body are cell
extensions. An axon, along which the stimulus travels, transmits an impulse from a sensor to the
central nervous system, or from the central nervous system to the effector. It is surrounded by a
myelin sheath. Myelin is a lipid material which insulates the axon from the cells around it and
helps in the transmission of the impulse. Axons can be long. A single axon might run from the
spinal cord to the tip pf a finger. A dendrite transmits an impulse towards the cell body.
How impulses are transmitted between neurones
Nerve cells are not joined together. There is a tiny space, called a synapse, between the point
where one neurone ends and another starts. The impulses which travel along the nerve fibre are
electrical and cannot cross this gap. So, in order for an impulse to pass from one neurone to
another, another method of transmission is needed.
When an electrical impulse in a neurone reaches a synapse, it triggers the release of tiny amounts
of a chemical substance. This substance is called a neurotransmitter. It diffuses across the
synapse to the next neurone where it sets off an electrical impulse that will pass along that
neurone. So, the impulse crosses the synapse not as an electrical signal but as a chemical one.

The end, also known as the presynaptic terminal are the distal terminations of axons specialized
for the release of neurotransmitters. It is separated from the neuron or muscle or gland cell onto
which it impinges by a gap called the synaptic cleft.
The Brain

The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem. Cerebrum: is the
largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs higher
functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions,
learning, and fine control of movement.
The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex (also known as “gray matter”).
•The thalamus carries messages from the sensory organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and fingers to
the cortex.
•The hypothalamus controls the pulse, thirst, appetite, sleep patterns, and other processes in our
bodies that happen automatically.
•The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary gland, which makes the hormones that control
growth, metabolism, water and mineral balance, sexual maturity, and response to stress.
The Midbrain
The midbrain, underneath the middle of the forebrain, acts as a master coordinator for all the
messages going in and out of the brain to the spinal cord.
The Hindbrain
The hindbrain sits underneath the back end of the cerebrum. It consists of the cerebellum, pons,
and medulla. The cerebellum is also called the “little brain” because it looks like a small version
of the cerebrum is responsible for balance, movement, and coordination.
The pons and the medulla, along with the midbrain, are often called the brainstem. The
brainstem takes in, sends out, and coordinates the brain’s messages. It also controls many of the
body’s automatic functions, like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, digestion, and
blinking.
References:
1) Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, et al. (2009). “Equal numbers of neuronal and
nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain”. J.
Comp. Neurol. 513 (5): 532-541.

2) Finger S (2001). “Ch. 1: The brain in antiquity”. Origins of neuroscience: a history of

explorations into brain function. Oxford Univ. Press

3) Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). “Ch. 2: Nerve cells and behavior”.

4) Tortora, G.J., Derrickson, B. (2016). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (15th ed.). J.
Wiley.