Water Quality Policy

Guideline

Reviewed by: Shibabaw Tadesse

Next review: June 2016

July 2014
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Table of Content:
Acronym ................................................................................................................................. 5
1. Why this Policy Guideline? ............................................................................................... 6
2. WaterAid’s Principles and Objectives ............................................................................. 6
3. Audiences .......................................................................................................................... 6
4. Institutional Roles and Responsibilities ......................................................................... 7
4.1. WaterAid Ethiopia (WAE) ......................................................................................... 7
4.2. Partner’s Responsibilities ....................................................................................... 9
4.3. Government and Community.................................................................................. 10
5. Determinants of Water Quality ...................................................................................... 11
5.1. Major Chemicals of Concern .................................................................................. 11
5. 1.1. Fluoride ............................................................................................................ 11
5.1.2. Nitrate ............................................................................................................... 12
5.1.3. Iron .................................................................................................................... 12
5.1.4. Manganese ....................................................................................................... 13
5.1.5. Total dissolved Solid (TDS) .............................................................................. 14
5.1.6. Iodine ................................................................................................................ 14
5.1.7. Arsenic .............................................................................................................. 14
5.2. Turbidity, pH and chlorine residual ........................................................................ 15
5.3. Microbiological Contaminants ................................................................................ 15
6. WHO Physico-
Physico-Chemical and Microbial Parameters ...................................................... 18
7. Water Quality Standard .................................................................................................. 19
7.1. List of National legislative standards for principal contaminants ....................... 20
7.2. List of chosen quantitative standards for principal contaminants ...................... 20
7.3. WaterAid Ethiopia Standard Limits of Principal Contaminants ............................ 21
10. Methodology ................................................................................................................. 22
10.1. General Testing Frequency................................................................................... 23
10.2. Testing frequency for specific cases ................................................................... 25
10.2.1. Fluoride .......................................................................................................... 25
10.2.2. Nitrates ........................................................................................................... 25
10.2.3. Iron.................................................................................................................. 26
10.3. Details of test
test methodologies selected ................................................................... 26
10.1. Field based testing................................................................................................ 26
10.2. Sampling ................................................................................................................ 27
10.3. Sample preservation and transportation ............................................................ 27
10.4. Field test for microbiological contaminants ........................................................ 28
10.5. Filed testing for chemicals ................................................................................... 28
10.5.1. Fluoride .......................................................................................................... 28
10.5.2. Nitrate............................................................................................................. 28
10.6. Point of use Water Treatment .............................................................................. 29
10.7. Water Safety Plan ................................................................................................. 30
10.7.1. Sanitary survey .............................................................................................. 31
13. Financing
Financing Water Quality ............................................................................................... 32
13.1. Training for WaterAid Ethiopia, partners and government................................. 32
13.2. Details of Equipment for Testing ......................................................................... 33
14. Reporting, Documentation and Dissemination .......................................................... 34
15. Follow-
Follow- up Arrangements ............................................................................................ 34
15.1. General .................................................................................................................. 34

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 15.2. Organic Contamination ......................................................................................... 35
15.3 Inorganic Constituents........................................................................................... 35
Reference ............................................................................................................................ 37
Annex I. Annual/Bi-
Annual/Bi-annual Water quality of new and rehabilitated WaterAid funded
water facilities reporting format......................................................................................... 38
Annex II. Water quality of follow up tested WaterAid funded water facilities reporting
format .................................................................................................................................. 39
Annex III. WaterAid Ethiopia Water Quality Monitoring Form Form--Bacteriological ................. 40
Annex IV. WaterAid Ethiopia Water Quality monitoring form- form-Physicochemical
Physicochemical...............
ysicochemical 41
Annex V. Sanitary survey form for assessment of contamination ................................ 42

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List of Tables

Table 1. WHO limits for physico-

physico-chemical parameters and their health risk ................ 18
Table 2. Guideline values for verification of microbial quality (WHO guideline)............ 19
Table 3. Guideline value for disease risk classification using microbial density .......... 19
Table 4. Lists of the limits made by ESRDF and MoWE................................
MoWE.................................................
................................................. 21
Table 5. WaterAid Ethiopia limits for principal contaminants to be adopted for frequent
monitoring purposes ................................................................
................................................................................................
......................................................................
...................................... 22
Table 6. Minimum sample number for piped drinking water in the distribution system
................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
........................................................................
........................................ 25
Table 7. Comparison of steps in a water safety plan and steps that WaterAid promotes
to assure water quality.
quality. ................................................................
................................................................................................
..................................................................
.................................. 31
Table 8. Minimum annual frequency for sanitary survey ..............................................
.............................................. 32

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Acronym

BGS British Geological Survey

CCRDA Consortium of Christian Rehabilitation Development Association
CLTSH Community Led-Total Sanitation and Hygiene
EHNRI Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research institute
FMOH Federal Ministry of Health
GI Galvanized Iron
GPS Geographical Positioning System
GV Guideline value
HWTS Household Water Treatment and Storage
JAICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
MOARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
MOH Ministry of Health
MOWE Ministry of Water and Energy
MWA Millennium Water Alliance
NGO Non Governmental Organizations
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
PSI Population Service International
QSAE Quality Standard Authority of Ethiopia
RADWQ Rapid Assessment of Drinking Water Quality
SMT Senior Management Team
SNV Netherlands Development Organization
TCU True Colour Unit
TTC Thermo Tolerant Coliform
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
TWA Town Wide Approach
UN United Nations
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
WAE WaterAid Ethiopia
WaSH Water Sanitation and Hygiene
WHO World Health Organization
WSF Water and Sanitation Forum
WSR Whole System in the Room
WWA Woreda Wide Approach

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1. Why this Policy Guideline?

This policy guideline is developed:

• To clarify roles and responsibilities of carrying out water quality monitoring and
assurance within WaterAid Ethiopia, partners - including local government, user
community, and stakeholders.
• To set agreed minimum water quality parameters and ensure the water
provided to the community by WaterAid fund is safe and adequate by
monitoring the quality of water in line with the nationally adapted standards.
• To clarify the major health risk and non-health risk water quality parameters;
major chemical concerns, microbiological contaminants, sampling and testing
methods, and lay down major approaches to follow in water safety which
includes risk assessments.
• To clarify WHO limits, national standards, and adopted WaterAid Ethiopia
standards.

2. WaterAid’s Principles and Objectives

WaterAid's aims are that the quality of drinking water delivered to consumers by the
project that it supports:
• Be significantly better than the water quality of existing unimproved sources by
risk reduction and management interventions
• Should be such that no health risk arises from its use by freeing from disease
causing organisms, poisonous chemicals, and keeping optimum amount of
minerals
• Should conform to the broadly accepted quality standards of the region or
country where the installation is located
• Should be acceptable in appearance, taste, odor and other local aesthetic
aspects

3. Audiences
This guideline is prepared for WaterAid Ethiopia (WAE) and its partner’s organization as
a framework to help them ensure water safety for all WaterAid funded projects. The
document can be used as a reference by any other interested WaSH sector actor such

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as local government, user community, donors, researches and private organizations.
The policy guideline is subject to revision based on national water quality policy
changes and WaterAid global directions.

Organizations in Ethiopia with responsibility for or interest in water quality assessment

in which WaterAid Ethiopia could work are among others;
• The Federal Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy
• The Federal Ministry of Health
• Partner Organizations of WaterAid Ethiopia
• Quality and Standards Authority of Ethiopia
• Environmental Protection Authority of Ethiopia
• The Regional State Water Bureau
• The Regional State Health Bureau
• Regional and Zonal Laboratories
• The Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute
• Zonal/Woreda/ Water, Irrigation and Energy Offices
• Zonal/Woreda/Town Health Offices
• Private sectors (drilling companies, water treatment producers and distributors)
• Universities and Technical Vocational Education and Training Centres (TVETCs )
• Water quality logistics and chemicals importing companies
• Networks and forums (CCRDA WASH forum, WASH Ethiopia movement, )
• Urban Water and Sewerage Authorities/Utilities
• User Communities

4. Institutional Roles and Responsibilities

Responsibilities

4.1. WaterAid
WaterAid Ethiopia (WAE)

The Programmes department of WaterAid Ethiopia (WAE) is responsible for drafting,

reviewing and follow-up of the implementation of this policy guideline document.
WaterAid Ethiopia’s senior management team lead by the Country Representative shall
oversee the process and provide the necessary support.

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WaterAid Ethiopia's Woreda Wide Program Coordinator shall be responsible for the
water quality guideline document drafting, providing technical support during water
quality tasting and coordinating efforts for capacity building to stakeholders jointly with
the capacity development coordinator.. In addition, the hygiene and sanitation
technical manager is responsible to document the test results in a soft copy (data
base) and hard copy.

The programmes department has specific responsibility of sharing the guideline

document with WaterAid internally and with partner organizations; build the capacity of
WaterAid and partner’s (including government and partners) staff in collaboration with
the capacity development coordinator of WaterAid Ethiopia. The programmes director
shall oversee the proper implementation of the policy guideline.

WaterAid Ethiopia is committed to funding equipment and chemicals needed for water
quality testing at field level during the project period or facilitate for the use of
available testing kits or laboratories owned by government. WaterAid is also
responsible for training partner and government staff who will be engaged in carrying
out the risk assessment, risk management and water quality testing and treating using
portable test kits. WaterAid Ethiopia technical staff shall take part in the
implementation of water quality policy guideline.

Program managers in WaterAid Ethiopia shall make sure that their respective WASH
projects include plans for water quality risk assessment, risk management, testing,
treating and re-checking. The plan shall also include capacity building and plan
required logistics for the implementation of water quality.

WaterAid Ethiopia will have responsibilities to water quality assurance of new,

rehabilitated and follow-up water testing during the project period. However, follow-up
tests done during the project period are not aiming to assure the quality of community
water supplies for long term periods. However, it is the responsibility of local
institutions and service provides to regularly test the water quality and assure that
communities are getting clean and safe water. WAE will advocate and promote good

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practice in relation to water quality assurance, monitoring and holding service
providers to account for water quality issues.

4.2. Partner’s Responsibilities

Partner organizations involved in water supply development need to include water
quality baseline information in their project documents. For surface water the baseline
has to be documented as part of the project document. For other technologies such as
ground water and sand dam - if there is no water source in the nearby - the water
quality information has to be included after the actual implementation of the water
supply activity – e.g. at pump test level for drilled well.

Water quality monitoring should also be included in the activity and budget plan; the
plan should include supply of testing kits and reagent for local government, testing and
capacity building requirements.

Water quality testing for high risk contaminants is the responsibility of the partner
organizations. Initial tests such as during inception and before handing over have to
be verified by nearby government laboratories. To run a chemical and bacteriological
test, partner organisations need to ensure that water samples are taken from the
sources and use portable kits or mobile laboratory if they have access to one. Sample
should be taken to a well establish laboratory where other facilities are not available
for verification. If partners have no access to portable kits, partner organizations
should ask WaterAid Ethiopia or respective woreda water and health offices to use
their testing kits. In order to sustain the water quality monitoring and to maximize the
use of the test kits WaterAid shall fund purchase of testing kit through the partners’
project for woreda water or health offices.

The water quality monitoring has to be preceded by sanitary survey around the water
sources. As sanitation coverage in the country is still in the lowest level and
horticulture and mining industry, is proliferating in Ethiopia, water sources around the
farm lands, greenhouses, cement, mining and tannery factories should get frequent
sanitary survey and if there is any suggestion by the sanitary survey water quality
should be tested. The test results of the water quality must be included in all the

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project documents and reported to WaterAid Ethiopia and relevant stakeholders using
reporting formats (Annex I, II III & IV) both in hard copy and electronics filing results in
their offices by partners hygiene and sanitation officers.

Partners must take responsibility to take corrective measures for any test results that
indicates poor water quality. Alternative sources will be identified with full involvement
of the local government offices for water samples with high and continuous level of
contamination. Partners must ensure existence of local government support to
communities in relation to ongoing water safety. Partners should also include water
quality requirements into their agreement with local government by including a
statement that explains any water source that doesn’t fulfill the guideline limits is
subject to abandoned. Community awareness activities need to also include that
water sources that doesn’t meet the guideline value is subject to abandon.

4.3. Government and Community

Following capacity building of staff and provision of support with water quality
monitoring logistics, the local government with full involvement of the community is
expected to take over the responsibility of maintaining water safety. During the
project’s active phase, WaterAid Ethiopia and partners will focus on capacity building of
woreda water and health offices in terms of training and logistic support so that the
water quality risk assessment and risk management will be sustained. This policy
guideline document gave Ministry of Health and its all structures a regulatory (quality
assurance) responsibility while Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy and all its level
structures are responsible for monitoring and ensuring water quality. Awareness
creation and community involvement towards assuring water quality should be given
due emphasis during project implementation periods so that hence community will
take part in sustaining the water quality.

As indicated in the national drinking water quality monitoring and surveillance strategy
of MoH, the role of the government also includes sharing the status of the water quality
tests during the Whole System in the Room (WSR)-meeting for planning CLTSH
triggering and targeting the household water treatment and storage (HWTS) using the
private sector involvement by encouraging the market set up.

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5. Determinants of Water Quality
There are different physic-chemical and bacteriological elements for water quality
standards. The physic-chemical determinants can result naturally from rock types,
human exercises like effluent releases/leakage from different sources, agricultural
chemical practices with runoff, industrial pollutants and pathogenic contaminations.
The level and concentration of these different elements would have a positive or
negative health impact and economic effect. Water construction materials damage
also ends up with indirect health impacts. Therefore, water quality is one of the service
levels factor contributing to a positive public health benefit.

5.1. Major Chemicals of Concern

The following are high risk contaminants included in British Geological Survey (BGS)
fact sheet for Ethiopia and this guideline would focus on the following parameters for
monitoring purposes; otherwise all the parameters included in Ministry of Water,
Irrigation and Energy (MOWIE) or Quality Standard Authority of Ethiopia (QSAE)
guideline would be subject to be tested for all new or rehabilitated water supply
schemes.

5. 1.1.
1.1. Fluoride
Fluoride minerals are abundant in certain rock types. High concentrations of fluoride
can be released into ground water through dissolution of these fluoride minerals
especially after prolonged contact periods within aquifers. Low concentrations of
fluoride are beneficial to dental health (up to 1 mg/l) but elevated concentrations can
result in dental fluorosis or debilitating skeletal fluorosis at higher concentrations.
Fluoride intake can originate from dust inhalation and food sources but drinking water
containing high concentrations can also be regarded as a primary source. Fluoride can
be classified as a high priority chemical parameter requiring surveillance in areas
where it is likely to occur in ground waters at high concentrations.

As in other parts of the East African Rift valleys, fluoride is also a major health problem
for communities using ground water sources in the Ethiopian Rift valley area. Reports
indicate that concentrations greater than 10 mg/l are found in waters from Rift valley.
Moderately high concentrations have also been reported in ground water from volcanic

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rocks in the highlands. Long-term use of high fluoride drinking water is known to cause
both dental and skeletal fluorosis observed in populations residing in the Rift valley.
Reports indicate that dental fluorosis is also recognized in some highland communities
where the water is abstracted from volcanic rocks. Various studies have also indicated
fluoride concentrations from deep geothermal wells and fluoride in excess of 200 mg/l
in some of the alkaline, saline lakes such as Chitu, Shalla and Abayata mainly caused
due to evaporation (previous water quality policy).

5.1.2
1.2. Nitrate
The UN 1989 report indicated that nitrate concentrations are high in ground water
from several urban areas especially around Dire Dawa and Addis Ababa resulting from
mainly leaking effluent from septic tanks. Concentrations are likely high in urban areas
where the water tables are close to the ground surface.

High nitrate levels can develop in ground waters as a result of:

• Run-off from agricultural land using nitrate fertilizers
• Contamination with urine and feces
• Industrial pollution

Unprotected ground water sources are particularly susceptible to contamination. High

nitrate concentrations pose a significant health risk to bottle-fed infants as nitrate
inhibits the ability of the blood to convey oxygen around the body, leading to a
potentially fatal condition called ‘blue-baby syndrome’ or methahaemoglobinaemia.
Reference to World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline limits for these contaminants
are Nitrate – 50mg/l (short term exposure), Nitrite - 3mg/l- short term exposure, 0.2
long term exposure. WHO guideline value for combined nitrate plus nitrite; is the sum
of the ration of the concentration of each of its guideline value should not exceed 1.
Typical rang in ground water is 0-100mg/l.

5.1.3.
1.3. Iron
The ground water in most of the country is not likely to contain high concentrations,
since iron is expected in anaerobic or highly acidic groundwater, which has not been
reported in the available literature. Hydro-geochemical data and reports confirm that

12
the groundwater of the country does not contain high concentration of iron. Iron is one
of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s crust. It is found in natural fresh water at
levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mg/litter. Iron may also be present in drinking - water as
a result of the use of iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes
during water distribution. Iron is an essential element in human nutrition. Estimates of
the minimum daily requirement for iron depend on age, sex, physiological status and
iron bioavailability and range from about 10 to 50mg/day.

Iron can be released from GI pipelines where the pH of the water is very low and water
is acidic. After longer period of time the pipes will get rusted and the iron ion will be
released from the pipe to the water and cause change in the color of the water-
become reddish and the test also becomes metallic which in turn will result in
abandoning the water supply. Based on the pH test of the water, water with low pH-
acidic needs decision to whether cancel implementation of the water supply, use
treatment option like addition of bicarbonate and use of uPVC pipes for the network
and other needs in the system.

5.1.4.
1.4. Manganese
Like as iron, the ground water in most of the country is not likely to contain high
concentrations of manganese, since it is expected in anaerobic or highly acidic
groundwater, which has not been reported in the available literature.

Manganese is one of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s crust, usually occurring
with iron. It is used principally in the manufacture of iron and steel alloys, as an oxidant
for cleaning, bleaching and disinfection as potassium permanganate and as an
ingredient in various products.

Manganese is an essential element for humans and other animals and occurs
naturally in many food sources. Manganese is naturally occurring in many surface
water and groundwater sources, particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation conditions,
and this is the most important source for drinking-water. WHO limit for manganese is
0.4mg/l. Typical range in ground water is usually less than 1 µg/l (up to around 1 mg).

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5.1.5.
1.5. Total dissolved Solid (TDS)
(TDS)
In the Eastern part of Ethiopia sodium and chloride are likely to be dominant dissolved
constituents, with total dissolved solids often in excess of 2000mg/l. In the southern
part of the Rift valley, sodium and bicarbonate are the dominant dissolved constitutes.

Ground water from Ogaden region are noted to be dominated by sodium and sulphate
with total dissolved solids concentration in excess of 1500mg/l. In ground water from
the Wabe-Shebelle catchments of southern Ethiopia, dominant dissolved constituents
are reported to be sodium and chloride with total dissolved solids in excess of
300mg/l. Lowest concentrations of dissolved solids (<500mg/l) are reported for
ground water from north central and southeast highlands and on south side of the Rift
valley.

5.1.6.
1.6. Iodine
Iodine deficiency disorders are widely prevalent in several parts of Ethiopia. The
highest goiter prevalence is reported to be in Gammo Goffa and Benishangule. The
iodine content of drinking water was not especially low, but that of local food crops
were reported to be generally low.

Iodine - recommended limit- Typical range in potable ground water is less than 1 µg/l
to 70 µg/l (extremes up to 400µg/l.

5.1.7
1.7. Arsenic
No data is available for arsenic in the ground water in Ethiopia. The geology of most of
the country suggest that concentrations in ground water are not likely to be high.
Possibleexceptions occur where sulphide minerals occur in association with gold,
platinum or copper ores. Arsenic occurs naturally in certain rock types, soils, the
atmosphere and water bodies. It can be released into ground water sources at
elevated concentrations following weathering reactions, biological activity, and volcanic
emissions as well as through human activities such as mining and the application of
fertilizers containing arsenic compounds. It is endemic in ground waters from certain
areas and causes adverse human health effects after prolonged exposure.

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There is overwhelming evidence from epidemiological studies that consumption of
elevated levels of arsenic through drinking-water is causally related to the development
of cancer through several sites, particularly skin, bladder and lung. Arsenic is thus a
high priority chemical parameter that requires monitoring in water sources deemed to
be at risk from contamination.

Although Arsenic is not considered to cause a problem in groundwater of Ethiopia, it is

anticipated to occur in areas where sulphide minerals occur in association with gold,
platinum or copper ores likely restricted to areas of ancient crystalline rocks. However
for the sake of safety it is suggested that Arsenic tests to be done when sanitary survey
indicates mining around the water source. For the time being WaterAid Ethiopia has no
projects around the known gold mining areas.

The Ethiopian Standard Drinking water-Specifications recommended maximum

permissible level for Arsenic is 0.01 mg/l. Arsenic is not high risk for the time being.

5.2
5.2. Turbidity, pH
pH and chlorine residual
Chlorine residual is where supplies are chlorinated, as they can describe the microbial
quality of drinking water. Therefore, these are recommended in water quality
monitoring program as they either directly influence microbial quality (in the case of
chlorine) or may influence disinfection efficiency and microbial survival (in the case of
pH and turbidity). There is no health-based guideline or standard value for pH. Although
pH usually has no direct impact on consumers, it is one of the most important
operational water quality parameter. If water is acidic (low pH value) it causes
corrosion of steel made pipe lines which intern causes change in color and test of the
water and become objectionable to use.

5.3.
5.3. Microbiological Contaminants
The potential health consequence of microbial contamination is such that its control
must always be of paramount importance and must never be compromised From WHO
guideline. Faecally derived pathogens are the principal concerns of setting health
based targets for microbial safety.

15
Water bodies usually consists of a wide variety of microorganisms, which include
pathogenic and non pathogenic. The non pathogenic microorganisms may lead to
other problems like test and odor, which may serve as indicator of safety and may
influence the water selection for consumption.

The principal concern for microbiological water quality is to the contamination by

pathogenic microorganism. Such pathogens include bacteria, helminthes, protozoa
and viruses. The routing monitoring of pathogens is generally not undertaken for
several reasons, such as due to lack of analytical tools and where it is available is
expensive and difficult to perform. Individual pathogens cannot be guaranteed to be
presenting in all untreated or unprotected water depending on whether pathogen
contaminated faeces are present in the water or not. And thus failure to observe a
particular pathogen in water sample could not imply the absence of other pathogens in
water. But if resources permit assessing pathogens presence in source and drinking
water are useful tools for determining the public health risk from drinking water and
developing health based water quality targets.

Because of the above mentioned reasons and because most water-born pathogens are
derived from faeces indicator organisms, usually bacteria are particularly used to
analyze the microbiological quality of drinking water. The most commonly used are E.
coli (type 1) or thermo tolerant coli form which are exclusively derived from human and
animal faeces. The identification of these E. coli strain from contaminated water is
simple but time taking as it requires a two step process presumptive and confirmatory
testing methods. Thus many drinking water quality monitoring programs use thermo
tolerant coli form as a surrogate, because results are quickly and cheaply obtained
though it gives only a presumptive result.

Thermo tolerant coli form are coli form groups that can grow at 44 - 45 degree Celsius
which contain mainly the type 1 E. coli at about 95% of the group and money others
have an environmental sources. Thermo tolerant coli form analysis can be performed
by different techniques of inexpensive methods and the result are obtained within 14-
24 hours. In addition to this the brooder group of coli forms known as total coli form is
also used in the monitoring program of water quality. These are of no sanitary or public

16
health significance but their analysis is important in chlorinated water supplies as they
are very sensitive to chlorine and their presence in such analyzed water implies that
there is water contamination. However, since the total coli form can be present in any
un-chlorinated water derived from bio films within the distribution system at about
10/100ml of sample their use in un-chlorinated water monitoring program is not as
such recommended.

Faecal streptococci are also used as other kind of indicator of drinking water
microbiological quality. These bacteria have strong relationship to diarrhea disease
even than E. coli or thermo tolerant coli form and thus are more resistant to drying and
chlorination their monitoring is recommended for ground water receiving contaminated
recharge water and in chlorinated distribution systems. Variety of techniques are
available for analysis of these bacteria but the limitation of their being time consuming
as a result cannot be obtained before 48 hr, their usefulness for routine monitoring is
limited but this still have a limited impact on their value in water quality assessment
activities.

17
6. WHO Physico-
Physico-Chemical and Microbial Parameters
Table 1. WHO limits for physico-
physico-chemical parameters and their health risk

No Substance WHO limits Health risk

1. Fluoride 1.5mg/l Dental and skeletal Flurosis
2. Nitrate (NO3) 50mg/l Blue baby syndrome
3. Manganese (Mn) 0.4mg/l
4. Iron (Fe) 0.3mg/l No health based risk

5. Hardness 500mg/l Not health based

6. Ammonia (NH3) 1.5mg/l Not health based
7. Sodium (Na) 200mg/l Not health based
8. Sulphate 250mg/l
9. Hydrogen sulfide 0.05mg/l Not health based
10. Copper (Cu) 2.0mg/l Health based
11. Arsenic 0.01mg/l Health based
12. Lead (Pb) 0.01mg/l Health based
13. Chromium 0.05mg/l
14. Chloride (Cl) 200 – 300mg/l Test and corrosion are the main
problems
15. Nitrite (NO2) 3mg/l
16. Alkalinity (CaCO3) 200mg/l
17. Potassium (K) 1.5mg/l
18. Colour (app) 15TCU
19. Turbidity 5 NTU
20. Conductivity 0.60 –
0.18µs/cm
21. pH 6.5 – 8.5 < 4 Acidic, 7 Neutral and > 7 Alkaline
22. Calcium (Ca) 75mg/l
23. Chlorine (Cl2) 5mg/l The residual free chlorine
concentration after 30min should be
≥ 0.5mg/lit at pH < 8.0.

18
 Table 2. Guideline values for verification of microbial quality (WHO guideline)

Organisms Guideline value

All water directly intended for drinking
E. coli or thermo tolerant coli form bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-ml
sample
Treated water entering the distribution system Must not be detectable in any 100-ml
E. coli or thermo tolerant coli form bacteria sample
Treated water in the distribution system Must not be detectable in any 100-ml
E. coli or thermo tolerant coli form bacteria sample

Immediate investigative action must be taken if E. coli is detected. Although E. coli is the
more precise indicator of faecal pollution, the count of thermo tolerant coli form bacteria is
an acceptable alternative. If necessary, proper confirmatory tests must be carried out.
Total coli form bacteria are not acceptable indicators of the sanitary quality of water
supplies, particularly in tropical areas, where many bacteria of no sanitary significance
occur in almost all untreated supplies.
It is recognized that in the great majority of rural water supplies, especially in developing
countries, faecal contamination is widespread. Especially under these conditions, medium
term targets for the progressive improvement of water supplies should be set.

Table 3. Guideline value for disease risk classification using microbial density

Thermo tolerant coli form density per Disease Risk

100ml classification
<1 No risk
1-10 Low risk
11-100 High risk
>100 Very high risk

7. Water Quality Standard

Water quality standards of world health organization (WHO), British Geological Survey
fact sheet for Ethiopia, Ministry of Water and Energy, Quality Standard Authority of
Ethiopia and Ministry of Health guidelines are bases for setting minim water quality
standards for WaterAid supported projects.

19
7.1. List of National legislative standards for principal contaminants
Quality and Standard Authority of Ethiopia has produced drinking water specifications
Reference number ES261: 2001. The specification includes physical and chemical
descriptors, bacteriological requirements and test methods for water for drinking and
domestic purpose. The standard was prepared under the direction of Environmental
and Health Protection Safety and Hygiene Practices Technical Committee and
published by the Quality Standards Authority of Ethiopia. The standard is based on
• WHO guidelines for drinking water quality 1983 edition
• Kenyan Bureau of Standards publication KS 05-459, 1985 specification for
drinking water
• Bureau of Indian Standards publication IS 10500, 1991, Drinking Water
Specification
In October 1996 the Ethiopian Ministry of Health, Hygiene and Environmental Health
Services Department has also issued a water quality standard and monitoring
guideline. The standard is mainly based on WHO specification. The Federal Ministry of
Water Resources and the Addis Ababa Water Supply and Sewerage Authority are also
using WHO's standard. The Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund
(ESRDF) financed by the World Bank has developed preliminary permissible limits on
temporary basis for the projects it finances, which is similar to WHO limits except for
Fluoride, for which MOWE has increased the limit to 3mg/lit.

* ESRDF was one of WASH implementer but currently it has phased out.

7.2. List of chosen quantitative standards for principal contaminants

The following are list of the national standards both for MoWE and other stakeholders;
WaterAid Ethiopia would recommend adopting the national standard. The following
limits are selected to be tested for all new and rehabilitated water sources before
distribution for consumption. However some of the critical high risk parameters for
which BGS has developed fact sheet are subject to frequent cheek up annually and as
indicated by sanitary survey.

20
Table 4. Lists of the limits made by ESRDF and MoWE
MoWE

No Tested Chemicals Standards/Permissible Remarks

level
1 Colour (app) 15TCU TCU- true colour unit.
2 Turbidity 5 NTU Median turbidity ≤1 NTU,
single sample ≤ 5NTU
3 Conductivity 0.60 – 0.18µs/cm
4 pH 6.5 – 8.5 < 4 Acidic, 7 Neutral and
>Alkaline
5 Ammonia (NH3) 1.5mg/l Impact on Odour and test
6 Sodium (Na) 200mg/l Taste problem
7 Potassium (K) 1.5mg/l
8 Total Hardness (CaCO3) 300mg/l
9 Calcium (Ca) 75mg/l
10 Magnesium (Mg) 50mg/l
11 Total Iron (Fe) 0.3mg/l
12 Manganese (Mn) 0.50mg/l
13 Fluoride (F) 3mg/l
14 Chloride (Cl) 200 – 300mg/l Test and corrosion are the
main problems
15 Nitrite (NO2) 3mg/l
16 Nitrate (NO3) 50mg/l
17 Alkalinity (CaCO3) 200mg/l
18 Sulphate (SO4) 250mg/l Taste and corrosion
19 Hydrogen Sulphide (S) 0.05mg/l
20 Chlorine (Cl2) 5mg/l The residual free chlorine
concentration after 30min
should be ≥ 0.5mg/lt at pH
< 8.0.

7.3.
7.3. WaterAid
WaterAid Ethiopia Standard Limits of Principal Contaminants

With the priority of health risk and economic risk which impacts health indirectly the
following parameters under table-5 are considered as the minimum WaterAid Ethiopia
Water Quality Testing parameters for physico-chemical and bacteriological.

21
Table 5. WaterAid
WaterAid Ethiopia limits for principal contaminants to be adopted for frequent
monitoring purposes

No Tested Chemicals, physical Standards/Permi Remarks

& microbiological ssible level
1 Fluoride 1.5mg/l Tooth and bone flourosis, rift
valley common problem
2 pH 6.5 – 8.5 < 4 Acidic, 7 Neutral and
>Alkaline
3 Turbidity 5 NTU Median turbidity ≤1 NTU,
single sample ≤ 5NTU
4 Total Iron (Fe) 0.3mg/l
5 Manganese (Mn) 0.50mg/l
6 Nitrate (NO3) 50mg/l
7 Nitrite (NO2) 3mg/l
8 Sodium (Na) 200mg/l Taste problem
9 Chloride (Cl-) 200 – 300mg/l Taste and corrosion are the
main problems
10 Sulphate (SO2-4) 250mg/l Taste and corrosion
11 Conductivity 0.60 –
0.18µs/cm
12 Term tolerant E. coli 0/100ml High risk due to low
sanitation and hygiene
coverage

10.
10. Methodology
WaterAid Ethiopia gives high value for the catchment wide approach which focuses on
the preventive management than point/source based treatment approach. Water
safety plan supported with sanitary surveillance could be used as one method.
Sampling and testing the water for its quality at field level and laboratory, and taking
appropriate measures based on the test results as well as re-confirmation of potable
drinking water are methods to be used. Furthermore point of use water treatment
promotion could be used as an alternative methodology to keep water safe. The

22
general and specific testing mechanisms and water safety plan and surveillance are
discussed below.

10.1.
10.1. General Testing
Testing Frequency

Water quality testing has to be done in the following cases;

During the project period, WaterAid Ethiopia and its partners should test all new or
rehabilitated schemes for physico chemical and microbiological test for all the
parameters stated in this guideline before providing the water for consumption.
However, for regular or risk based monitoring testing high risk parameters would be
sufficient. After the end of the project woreda water, health office and community
would be able to sustain the testing provided that they are well capacitated during the
project period.

The following are the situation where the water should be tested: -
1. During inception of the water supply project - for surface water possible water
sources should be tested but for other ground water and technologies like sand
dam if there is other source in the nearby sample within reasonable distance can
be taken from those sources and documented as a baseline. In case where there
are no other sources the testing can be in the middle of the actual implementation
of the water supply work at pump test level for the case of drilling. In the case of
urban water drilling, quality tests can be taken from test wells. If there are already
test results, it is possible to use secondary water quality report.
2. Newly developed or rehabilitated water supply for community consumption has to
be tested and corrective measures has to be taken before handing over the
scheme.
3. As water supply development such as digging, drilling and building works introduce
microbiological contamination, wells and spring development should be disinfected
and routinely chlorinated before they are brought into services.
4. For rain water harvesting (roof water catchments) testing and disinfection of the
reservoir before distribution is highly required.
5. Routine sanitary inspections (based on Table 5) should be carried out by partners
and community members and used to identify the level of monitoring assigned to
community supplies. Sanitary inspection involves- identification of potential

23
 sources of contamination, assessment of the risk posed by these potential sources
of contamination (sanitary inspection cheek list is Annexed-Annex-V).
6. Risk based testing -
• In case of an outbreak or an epidemic in project area, a test to verify the
cause of the epidemic- microbiological testing is more significant here
• Whenever there is big farming using fertilizers and industrial activities like
mining around the water sources water quality needs to be tested
• Whenever there is damage to the water structure water sample should be
taken for testing
• When there is flood around the sources and when there is open dumping of
waste around the water source water quality testing is mandatory
7. For follow-up test, water sources supplying more than 100,000 populations, or if a
source serves more than 10% of the population it should be subject to more regular
risk assessment, repeated test and treating (refer table-6).
8. Water source supplying schools and hospitals require more frequent testing.
9. Monitoring for follow-up test by WaterAid Ethiopia or partners is recommended to
be annually for bacteriology and every three year for physico chemical parameters
until the project is handed over to the community. During the project life the
capacity of woreda water and health offices staff should be built to sustain the
work.
10. For springs, sand dams and streams and small lakes microbiological testing should
be done in dry and wet seasons.
11. When large number of sources are available for follow-up test, taking proportion of
samples would be sufficient (testing 10% of the sources might be enough) for
monitoring of high risk contaminants purpose. However, for initial testing all the
sources should be tested.
12. Water quality testing of old schemes to see sustainability of the water quality and
testing to household water storage or point of use to examine the real impact
brought by sanitation and hygiene promotion.

24
Table 6. Minimum sample number for piped drinking water in the distribution system

Group Population served No of Annual samples

1 <5000 2
2 5,000-100,000 6 -120 samples
3 >100,000 Pop/100,000+120( 120 and
above)

10.2. Testing frequency for specific cases

10.2.1.
10.2.1. Fluoride
Temporal variations in fluoride concentration are likely as a result of the seasonal
variations in rainfall and base flow (ground water) inputs to the rivers. Consideration of
the seasonal fluctuations in water quality should therefore be made if river water is to
be used for potable supply. Therefore repeated testing during rainy and dry season is
recommended if sanitary survey is suggestive of silt or flood interred the well or source.
In rift valley areas where there are de-fluoridation schemes, initial test of water just
after the completion of the treatment plant and a random check up of row and treated
water to verify efficacy of the treatment scheme is recommended (from experience).

10.2.2. Nitrates
Elevated nitrate levels can result from contamination with human/animal wastes,
agricultural run-off or industrial pollution. Risk factors (particularly fertilized fields) are
likely to be widespread. Given the relatively low health risks associated with nitrate, it
may be practical to make sure that a small number of wells in risk areas are sampled
regularly.

If nitrate appears to be rising, a wider investigation can be carried out. According to the
rapid assessment carried out by WHO and UNICEF in 2010, nitrate (NO3) concentration
of 123mg/l was reported in Dire Dawa and Somali (RADWQ –WHO & UNICEF).

It is sensible to use the sanitary survey approach to assess the level of risk posed to a
water source by nitrates. Sources close to latrines, graveyards, rubbish pits or fields

25
where nitrate fertilizers are applied should be regarded as high-risk and should be
subject to more frequent monitoring. Ultimately it makes sense to reduce the risk of
nitrate contamination by alerting a community to the danger posed by the close
proximity of nitrate sources.

10.2.3. Iron
Iron is one of the most abundant metals in the earth’s crust. Iron contamination is a
particular problem for anaerobic groundwater supplies, but iron can get into drinking-
water from the use of iron coagulants or from corrosion of galvanized iron, steel and
cast-iron pipes in the distribution system. Iron also promotes the growth of iron
bacteria, which oxidize ferrous iron to ferric iron and in the process, corrode which
results on shortening of the design life of water systems.

Due to its aesthetic conditions people will be discouraged to use water with iron
contents. 7% of the total sample size of 1,619 and 15% of SNNPR samples are with
iron content above the standard as indicated in the report of (RADWQ report-WHO &
UNICEF, 2010).

10.3. Details of test methodologies selected

10.1. Field based testing

Physico - chemical and microbiological water quality can be tested at field level by well-
trained professional and portable test kits.

Field analysis have significant advantage of being carried out on fresh samples whose
characteristics have not been affected by transportation ( e.g. pH is highly affected by
temperature and to get accurate result field test is recommended), for microbiological
analysis field test is best as maintaining of sterility is best managed at field level if
appropriate precaution is made. It is also advantageous where transportation of
samples and refrigeration is not practicable in remote areas. However field analysis
does have limitations like using calibration of the instruments using standard
reagents/solutions.

26
In the case of test result unreliability in the field or local laboratories, partners should
verify by referring five percent of the samples to a recognised reference (regional
laboratories). In areas where regional laboratories are weak and not reliable; samples
should be taken to national laboratories such as Ethiopian Health and Nutrition
Research institute and MOWE.

In the future different technologies for water quality monitoring will be tested like the
mobile technology for water quality monitoring.

10.2.
10.2. Sampling

• Before taking sample for microbiological analysis from tap or pumps, it is important
to sterilize the opening using lighter or alcohol flame.
• In the case of ground water, flush a well or water system before sampling. This is
to clean out water that may have had extended contact with the well casing or pipe
work. A flow cell can be set up using simple container. When pH and conductivity
readings stabilize in the flow cell, a representative sample can be taken using a
sterile, air tight container.
• All samples should be labeled with the site, date, and time, nature of water source
and details of who collected the sample. A global positioning satellite (GPS)
reference can be useful for data manipulation and future monitoring.

10.3
10.3.
.3. Sample preservation and transportation
If samples are taken for off- site testing at laboratories, it is essential that they are
preserved during transportation to prevent change to their biological or hydro-chemical
properties. They should be preserved, stored in a dark, covered cool box at a stable
temperature between 4 and 10 degrees. They should be analyzed within 24 hours of
collection. If there is no ice transportation time should not exceed two hrs. If
transportation of samples to reference laboratory is not possible, results should be
validated using a separate test kit by inviting local laboratories to carry out the test.

Filed testing is highly recommended provided that all the required trainings and
logistics are fulfilled.

27
10.4. Field test for
for microbiological contaminants
The following testing equipments are recommended; potatest (potalab & potakit)–
which is used to test coli form and inorganic parameters such as nitrate and fluoride,
but it has to be able to read fluoride above 1.5 mg/l good to read fluoride up to 18 and
20 mg/l as fluoride in the rift valley are reaching to this level. Membrane filtration
testing methods using field test kit would be recommended to be applied with strict
maintenance of sterility techniques.

Rapid assessment using yes/no test strip - It is helpful to use a rapid strip test to
detect the presence of hydrogen sulphide gas and thus the presence of bacteria in
water. These strips can be used as a quick indicator of faecal contamination.
Whenever strip test is positive further microbiological test should be done using other
methods. Its limitation is that it detects presence of bacteria from around 3/100ml up
words as a result subjective judgment can be used. This test is best to check pre-
treated water supplies from piped network. It is highly recommended to be used for
community level testing. It is recommended that the strip is used by the community or
community hygiene promoters to report the water problem and to carry out system
assessment.

10.5.
10.5. Filed
Filed testing for chemicals

10.5.1.
10.5.1. Fluoride
Field testing for fluoride analysis can be carried out by colorimetric or ion- selective
electrode. Low –cost pocket colorimeter is available for field testing of fluoride and can
be supplied as kit with reagent solutions. Colometric kit for fluoride measuring is also
possible to be used but still we would like to have a kit that would measure high level
of fluoride.

Trained sanitarian, health or medical assistance or persons with comparable

educational attainments should become competent in the operation and
maintenances of these kits after four to five days training.

10.5.2.
10.5.2. Nitrate
Wagtech color comparator can be used to detect nitrate within the range 0 – 20mg/l.

28
A Palintest photometer is also suitable for monitoring nitrate levels within the range 0 -
20mg/l. Costs are the same as those listed for fluoride.

Again, trained sanitarians, health/medical assistants or persons with comparable

educational attainments should become competent in the operation and maintenance
of these kits after four to five days of instruction and practice.
Turbidity meter, pH meter and conductivity meter are also recommended to be
included in the field monitoring kits. Community can also trained and conduct these
tests with sanitary survey and yes or no test for detection of hydrogen sulfide.

All water sources found bacteriologically contaminated should be tested using the
recommended treatment. (Water testing and treatment implementation manual will be
prepared).

10.6. Point of use Water Treatment

A Rapid Assessment of Drinking Water Quality in the Federal Republic of Ethiopia found
that 72% of samples from “improved water supplies” were in compliance with the WHO
guideline values (GV) and Ethiopia drinking water standards for thermo tolerant coli
forms (TTC). Compliance ranged from 88% for utility piped supplies to 43% for
protected springs. The water microbiological quality of water is likely to be
considerably worse for the 62.7% of the population that relies on unimproved sources.
Moreover, at the household level, only 43.6% of samples were in compliance with the
WHO Guideline Value and national standard for Thermo tolerant coli form, and more
than half of household samples showed post-source contamination. The report
provides strong evidence in support of Household Water Treatment, and concludes
that “household water quality must be given serious attention”.

A systematic review of water quality interventions to prevent diarrhea suggests that

interventions at the household level (chlorination, filtration, boiling, solar disinfection,
flocculation/disinfection) are about twice as effective in preventing diarrhea as
conventional improvements in water supplies (protected wells, boreholes and tap
stands).

29
Therefore, household treatment options in the case where sanitation and hygiene level
is very low and whenever water sources are liable to be abandoned due to
contaminants above the guideline value, it is recommendable to treat any available
water sources with point of use systems as alternative means. WaterAid Ethiopa first
hand focus areas in water quality are risk prevention, securing the quality at the source
(if funds are aviled) and hygiene promotion for safe collection, transportation, storage
and use. (Point of use methods will be included in implementation manual).

10.7. Water Safety Plan

Water safety planning is a preventative management approach aimed at minimising
the risks posed to drinking water quality and health from catchment to point of use.
The purposes of Water Safety Plans (WSPs) are:
• Seek to prevent contamination of water from the source to the point of
consumption; and
• Give consumers greater involvement and control over maintaining water quality.

Water Safety Plans can be used for new or existing water supply schemes, both for
piped urban utility supplies and rural or peri-urban community supplies.

30
Table 7. Comparison of steps in a water safety plan and steps that WaterAid promotes
to assure water quality.

Water safety plan steps Steps WaterAid promotes

Establishment of health-
health-based targets for Country programme water quality policy
microbial and chemical water quality identifying high-risk contaminants, usually
based on national standards informed by
health-based targets
A system assessment to determine Sanitary inspection of conditions around
whether the water supply chain from water points and in households where
catchment to consumer can deliver safe water is stored before consumption
water at the point of consumption
Effective operational monitoring of Sanitary survey of all points in the water
identified control measures within the supply chain. Risk-based follow up
water supply chain that provide assurance measures and water quality monitoring
of safety
Management and communication plans Communities trained on source
describing actions to be taken during protection, safe household storage of
normal operation or incident conditions water, and hygiene. Country programme
which includes feedback and water quality policy outlines steps to take
improvement in event of contamination. Frequency of
follow-up monitoring is also outlined
Independent public health surveillance of Should be carried out by national
water safety institutions

10.7.1.
7.1. Sanitary survey
Sanitation inspection needs to be done for water supply schemes. Evaluation of all
sanitary situation such as excreta disposal around water sources, lack of maintenance
and poor workmanship, practices of collecting, transporting and handling water needs
to be observed and corrective measures have to be taken from the community health
point of view. A sanitary inspection format needs to be developed for each type of
scheme and provided to locally employed staff, community hygiene promoters and
health extension workers to be completed on regular basis (Annex of the check list is
attached-Annex -V).

31
 Table 8. Minimum annual frequency for sanitary survey

No Source of water/ scheme Commu Water supply Surveillance

nity agency agency
I On spot supply
I.1 Hand dug well 6 - -
I.2 Dug well with hand pump 4 - 0.5
I.3 Shallow and deep borehole well with hand 4 - 0.5
pump
I.4 Gravity spring 4 - 0.5
II Piped supply
II.1 Ground water - 0.5 o.5
II.2 Treated surface water with chlorination
< 5,000 Population - 0.5 0.5
5,000 to 20,000 - 1 0.5
II.3. Distribution system of piped supply - 6 0.5

13.
13. Financing Water Quality

13.1. Training for WaterAid

WaterAid Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, partners and government
WaterAid Ethiopia should provide adequate training to concerned staff of WaterAid,
partners, local government focusing Woreda/Town Wide Approach (W/TWA) and the
community.
The training should focus on how to conduct sanitary survey, microbiological and
physico chemical analysis using portable test kits, interpretation of the results as well
as taking remedial actions. Community Hygiene Promoters, government Health
extension workers, TVETs graduates and community members should be trained on
sanitary surveys and minor physico chemical testing using yes/no test for Hydrogen
sulfide gas and pH or turbidity. Training on Sanitary survey is crucial for searching
pollution of water sources due to practice of open defecation, new settlement, mining
and farming with fertilizers around the water sources, drainage conditions around

32
public water points and cracks / damages around structures which may lead to
pollution. In addition all staff involved in water quality testing should be trained in:
• Water sampling techniques and sample preservation for the various test
parameters. Five days practical training will be organized for WaterAid and
partner’s staff who are directly working in water supply and sanitation as well as
local government (water and health office staffs). The training has to be
contentious based on regularly assessment of capacity gap. The main focus of
capacity building in terms of training and logistic support should be for woreda
water and health office as they are the ones who will sustain the project and
continue water quality monitoring.
• Interpretation of results and taking remedial actions in consultation with local
responsible agencies is also another area of training. These trainings can be given
by the staff of any of the national laboratories or MOWE or MoH. Hygiene and
sanitation promotion also need to include water quality with special emphasis of
source protection from pollution.
• Reporting and dissemination of reports will be included in the training pack.
Woreda water and health offices where there are WaterAid Ethiopia and its
partners projects shall be trained and equipped with field testing kits and
guidelines.

13.
13.2. Details of Equipment for Testing
Testing
Wagtech potatest - That measure fluoride at high level of 18- 20mg/l
• Photometry / test kits for fluoride , Nitrate, manganese and others
• pH meter
• Turbidity meter
• Conductivity meter
• Consumables for both microbiology and chemicals
• Mobile technology for the future use

Priorities are given to use the existing mobile equipments and laboratory based
materials owned by government at different levels. Shortages of reagents and
chemicals would be covered by WaterAid Ethiopia. In areas where there is no access
for mobile testing kits and laboratory based testing, WaterAid Ethiopia will provide

33
mobile kits for the local government (health or water and energy) offices as part of the
projects included or planned by partners to fulfil the requirements addressed in this
policy guideline.

14.
14. Reporting,
Reporting, Documentation and Dissemination
Dissemination
Water quality test results should be reported using the attached Annexes. Baseline
data of water quality shall be part of project documents. Partners are required to report
water quality test results bi-annually and annually to WaterAid Ethiopia both in hard
and electronic copy. WaterAid Ethiopia will document the reports in an excel database
and share the learning for sector actors using different opportunities like the WSF and
WaSH Ethiopia Movement.

15.
15. Follow-
Follow- up Arrangements

15.1.
15.1. General
WaterAid finds it imperative that this guideline be adhered by its own staff and its
partners. However, the standard is subject to revision based on changes to country
guideline and WaterAid global directions. WaterAid Ethiopia and partners' service
delivery projects need to comply with the requirements stipulated in this guideline. The
standard must be adhered during project study and implementation phase. Water
quality test results must be attached to project proposals. Hence, any project that fails
to meet this requirement will not be eligible for funding by WaterAid unless alternatives
and treatment options are included with.
As part of the agreement WaterAid Ethiopia and partners need to develop a water
quality monitoring system for projects that are implemented with WaterAid financial
support.

Partners also need to include responsibility of sustaining water quality and the
likelihood of abandoning the water source that doesn’t meet the requirements stated
in this guideline and all alternative treatment options are not feasible. Water sampling
procedures and treatment options will be included in detail in the implementation
manual which WaterAid Ethiopia will prepare.

34
15.2.
15.2. Orga
Organic Contamination

Microbiological test results need to be included in the project proposal document so

that all stakeholders including concerned government line bureau, communities and
WaterAid shall have the necessary information to agree whether the project shall be
implemented or terminated. However, in order to reach to a conclusion it is necessary
to:

• Conduct a sanitary survey to find out the sources of contamination, or

• Explore other possible sources, or
• Simple/sustainable improvement works or raw water treatment

If alternative measures are not feasible and if upon consultation the other parties wish
to proceed with the use of a source that WaterAid considers unfit because of potential
health risk, the program manager is required to inform in writing to the other parties
the final decision reached by WaterAid. In the event the other parties do not wish to
proceed with a source on grounds of health risks, alternative solutions need to be
sought but again the senior management team will record WaterAid’s views on the
health risk.

15.
15.3 Inorganic Constituents

When water is tested for inorganic constituents, the properties that affect the safety of
drinking water shall conform to the levels specified in table 1 of this document. If
nitrates (expressed as N) are present in concentrations in excess of 10mg/l, the water
may be unsuitable for use by infants under one year of age, and an alternative source
of supply must be found for such infants’ use or water from same source should be
corrected in case of lack of other sources.

In areas where Nitrate is above 10mg/l, hygiene promotion should focus on the risk of
the water for infants. According to the Quality and Standards Authority of Ethiopia test
method ES B.W8.028 the recommended control limits of fluorides (as F) shall be
between 1 and 1.5 mg/l. WaterAid Ethiopia has to follow the standard of fluoride as
1.5mg/l. However, for Rift Valley areas effort should be made to provide an alternative

35
supply where the fluoride level not exceeds 1.5 mg/l therefore, for fluoride level in
excess of 1.5 mg/l other water sources with lower fluoride level should be sought or
dilute the water with low level fluoride source or the water has to be treated with
aluminum sulfate or other means based on the local government consultation.

Results that are beyond the absolute limits suggested in table 1 of this document need
to be discussed with all concerned parties and the health risks adequately explained.
Community views and the views of the concerned government departments should be
taken into consideration while looking for alternative solutions. Other factors that need
to be considered include the availability of alternative water resources, distance to
source and the estimated development cost among others. In case an agreement is
not reached regarding alternative solutions, the WaterAid senior management team
will consider what action WaterAid needs to take to the best interest of the community.

36
Reference

1. An Introduction to Water Safety Plan-WEDC- Factsheet -8, UK, Loughborough,

May 2012

2. British Geological Survey Information sheets for fluoride, nitrate, manganese

arsenic, Industrialization and urban

3. Guideline for Drinking –Water Quality first addendum to Third edition Volume 1

WHO 2006

4. Guidelines for drinking-water quality [electronic resource]: incorporating 1st and

2nd addenda, Vol.1, Recommendations. – 3rd ed. WHO 2008, Geneva

5. MOWR water quality Guideline – 2001

6. National drinking water quality monitoring and surveillance strategy, Ministry of

Health, May, 2011, Addis Ababa

7. Rapid Assessment of Drinking –Water Quality in the Federal Republic of

Ethiopia Country Report, WHO, UNICE , FMOH, Ethiopian Health and Nutrition

Research institute ( EHNRI), 2010

8. The Ethiopian Drinking Water Quality Standard are referred to as ES261:2001.

9. The Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund (ESRDF) financed by

the World Bank) preliminary water quality permissible limits.

10. WaterAid Ethiopia Water Quality Policy Guideline document 2009

11. WaterAid –UK- Organizational guidelines for water quality testing 2009

12. Water Security Framework-WaterAid, London -2012

37
 Project number

Unique water point ref

Latitude of waterpoint

Water point
coordinates
Longitude of waterpoint
Annex I. Annual/Bi-

Waterpoint type e.g. borehole,

New or rehabilitated?

Tested? (Y/N)

If not tested - reason not tested and date testing will be

carried out
Tested by

Date tested

Date water source put into service

pH

Conductivity µS/cm

Turbidity NTU

TTC or Ecoli/100ml

TTC lab or field tested?

Nitrate (specify if [NO3] or [NO3

[NO3--N]) mg/l

Arsenic (As) mg/l

Fluoride (F) mg/l

Iron (Fe) mg/l

Manganese (Mn) mg/l

Inorganic contaminants lab or field tested?

Annual/Bi-annual Water quality of new and rehabilitated WaterAid funded water facilities reporting format

office?
Copies of results held on file in CP office? Y/N

Potable/non
Potable/non--potable?
if water point has been tested, please respond to the questions below

If non
non--potable, what follow up action was taken? Please also
name the individual responsible for taking action

If non
non--potable, details of how users were informed
38
 Project number

Unique water point ref

Latitude of waterpoint
Water point
coordinates

Longitude of waterpoint

Waterpoint type

Tested by

Date tested

Date water source put into service

pH

Conductivity µS/cm

Turbidity NTU

TTC or Ecoli/100ml

TTC lab or field tested?

Nitrate (specify if [NO3] or [NO3

[NO3--N]) mg/l

Arsenic (As) mg/l

Fluoride (F) mg/l

Annex II. Water quality of follow up tested WaterAid funded water facilities reporting

Iron (Fe) mg/l

reporting format

Manganese (Mn) mg/l

Inorganic contaminants lab or field tested?

Copies of results held on file in CP office? Y/N

Potable/non
Potable/non--potable?

If non
non--potable, what follow up action was taken? Please also
name the individual responsible for taking action
If non
non--potable, details of how users were informed
39
Annex III. WaterAid Ethiopia Water Quality Monitoring Form-
Form-Bacteriological
Bacteriological Report for Result of Water Sample Analysis
BACKGROUND DATA:
Sample Serial No: __________ GPS-
GPS-Lat._____________
_________________
_________________ Log._______________
_________________
_________________
Date of collection: DD___ MM___Yr ______Time
______Time of collection: _____
_____ Project No: ___
1. Region: _____________________Time of incubation started:____________
Time of reading: ________ New/rehabilitated/follow up ___________________
2. Name of the project: ___________ Location: woreda _______ kebele _________
3. Partner Organization:__________ Unique water point name __________________
4. Type of the scheme/water point type: __________________No. of users:_______
5. Date /Year of completion: _____________
6. Site of collection: _____________________
7. Nature of the Sample: a, Chlorinated
1. Yes, when (recent one)___________ by whom?
______________
2. No, ____________ Why? Information_______ ____
8. The Scheme Managed by:_________________________________
RESULTS
• Thermo tolerant Coli form (TTC) count ______________E. coli /100ml
• Other organisms isolated (TC) count ________________Organisms/100ml
COMMENTS:
COMMENTS Tick using (√)
• ( ) Bacteriological Potable
• ( ) Bacteriological non-potable
• ( ) Chlorination Recommended
• ( ) Disinfection recommended
• Sanitary condition of the scheme area? / Presence of potential contaminants in
the area? (Yes/No)_____ Describe
________________________________________
LIST OF MONITORING TEAM
1 Name: _______________________Organization: _____________ Sign:
_______

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 2 Name: _______________________ Organization:_____________ Sign:
________
General Remark__________________
Reported by:
by __________________________ Date: _____________ Sign: ___________

Annex IV.
IV. WaterAid Ethiopia Water Quality monitoring form-
form-Physicochemical
Physicochemical Report Result of Water Sample Analysis
BACKGROUND DATA:
Sample Serial No: __________ GPS-
GPS-Lat.(N)______________
______________Log.(E)_______________
______________ _______________
Date of collection: _______Time of collection: _______ Project number: __________
1. Region: ___________________ Location: woreda ________ kebele ________
2. Name of the project: ___________ New/rehabilitated/follow up
________________
3. Partner Organization:__________ unique water point name __________________
4. Type of the scheme/water point type: __________________No. of users:_______
5. Date /Year of completion: _____________
6. Site of collection:_____________________
7. Nature of the Sample: a. Chlorinated
1. Yes, when (recent one) ___________ by whom?
2. No, ______ No information______________
8. The Scheme Managed by:_____________________________
No Tested Chemicals Standards/Per WAE limits of chemical to Result Remark
missible level be tested–
tested–MUST
1 Colour (app) 15TCU
2 Turbidity (NTU) 5 Turbidity (NTU)
3 Conductivity (µs/cm) 0.60 – 0.18 Conductivity (µs/cm)
4 pH 6.5 – 8.5 pH
5 Ammonia (NH3 mg/l) 1.5
6 Sodium (mg/l Na) 200 Sodium (mg/l Na)
7 Potassium (mg/l K) 1.5
8 Total Hardness (mg/l 300
CaCO3)
9 Calcium, (mg/l Ca) 75
10 Magnesium (mg/l Mg) 50
11 Total Iron (mg/l Fe) 0.3 Total Iron (mg/l Fe)
12 Manganese (mg/l Mn) 0.50 Manganese (mg/l Mn)

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13 Fluoride (mg/l F) 1.5 Fluoride (mg/l F)
14 Chloride (mg/l Cl) 200 – 300 Chloride (mg/l Cl)
15 Nitrite (mg/l NO2) 3 Nitrite (mg/l NO2)
16 Nitrate (Mg/l NO3) 50 Nitrate (Mg/l NO3)
17 Alkalinity (mg/l CaCO3) 200
18 Sulphate (mg/l SO4) 250 Sulphate (mg/l SO4)
19 Sulphide (S)
20 Phenol (mg/l)
21 Chlorine (mg/l Cl2) 5
22 Sulphite (mg/l Na2SO3)
23 Organophosphate

Reported by:
by __________________________ Date: _____________ Sign: ___________

Annex V.
V. Sanitary survey form for assessment of contamination
Risk at a water point and source

A. General information – Location of water point

Region: ___________ Woreda: ____________ Kebele: _________ Gote: _____________

GPS reading: Lat. (N) ____________________ Log. (E) ______________________
Year of construction: ________________________ Date of visit: DD __ MM ___ Yr _____
Was a water sample taken? No _____ Yes ____If yes, date: DD ___ MM __Yr __
analysis made by _______________ Field testing________ Laboratory _____________
Results of water sample:
• Bacteriology (Yes/No): ___________________________
• Physico Chemical (Yes/No): _______________________
• Others (Yes/No): ______ If yes: Specify: _________________________________
B. Identification of sanitary risk factors
• Is the water point / source located at the bottom of a slope or on lower
ground/downhill? No ___ Yes ___
• Is there a latrine within 30 m of the source? No___ Yes____
• Is the ground around the water point swampy and wet? No ___ Yes ___
• Is the slab or apron around the water point damaged or cracked? No ___ Yes
___
• Is there inadequate or no drainage away from the water point? No __ Yes ___
• Is the water point unfenced? No ___ Yes ___

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 • Do people drink directly from the spout/tap or place their fingers inside the
spout/tap to help the water flow adequately? No __ Yes __
• Do taps attached to plastic tube to guide the flow? No ___ Yes__
• Are there any other possibilities for water contamination? (Industry, mining,
mechanized farming etc) Specify:_______________________________________
Total score of sanitary risks
Note: One (1) point is given for each ‘Yes’ answer. Add up the total number of ‘Yes’
answers to get the sanitary risk score.
Note: Sanitary risk score: 6 – 7 = very high-risk of contamination
4 – 5 = high-risk of contamination
2 – 3 = some risk of contamination
0 – 1 = low risk of contamination
Name: Inspector: _______________ Signature: _____________ Org.: _______________
Name: Community representative: ____________ Signature: _______ Role: __________

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