DOT/FAA/TC-07/11 Human Factors Criteria for Displays:

Federal Aviation Administration A Human Factors Design Standard

William J. Hughes Technical Center
Atlantic City International Airport, NJ 08405 Update of Chapter 5

Vicki Ahlstrom, Human Factors Team – Atlantic City, ATO-P

Bonnie Kudrick, L-3 Communications, Titan Corporation

May 2007

Technical Report

This document is available to the public through the National Technical

Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA 22161. A copy is retained
for reference at the William J. Hughes Technical Center Library.

U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Aviation Administration
 NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department

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States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or
manufacturers' names appear herein solely because they are considered
essential to the objective of this report. This document does not constitute
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification policy. Consult your
local FAA aircraft certification office as to its use.

This report is available at the FAA, William J. Hughes Technical Center’s

full-text Technical Reports Web site: http://actlibrary.tc.faa.gov in Adobe®
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 Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.

DOT/FAA/TC-07/11

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

Human Factors Criteria for Displays: A Human Factors Design Standard Update of May 2007
Chapter 5
6. Performing Organization Code

AJP-6110

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Vicki Ahlstrom, Human Factors Team – Atlantic City, ATO-P DOT/FAA/TC-07/11

Bonnie Kudrick, L-3 Communications, Titan Corporation

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

Federal Aviation Administration

Human Factors Team – Atlantic City, ATO-P 11. Contract or Grant No.
William J. Hughes Technical Center
Atlantic City International Airport, NJ 08405

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered

Federal Aviation Administration Technical Report

Human Factors Research and Engineering Group 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
800 Independence Avenue, S.W.
Washington, DC 20591 ATO-P

15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract

This document contains updates and expands the design criteria and information on displays from the Human Factors Design
Standard. A research team of human factors experts evaluated the existing guidelines for relevancy, clarity, and usability. They
drafted new guidelines as necessary based on relevant sources, and they reorganized the document to increase usability. This
resulted in extensive changes to the original document including the addition of new guidelines, sources, and topic areas.

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement

Cathode Ray Tube This document is available to the public through the
Display National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
Guidelines Virginia, 22161. A copy is retained for reference at
Human Factors the William J. Hughes Technical Center Library.
Liquid Crystal Display
Video Display Terminal
19. Security Classification (of this report) 20. Security Classification (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 49
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
 Table of Contents

Page
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................v
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose...................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Scope......................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Shall and Should ....................................................................................................................3
2. METHOD ....................................................................................................................................3
2.1 Review of the Human Factors Design Standard ....................................................................3
2.2 Reorganization .......................................................................................................................4
2.3 Additional Information ..........................................................................................................5
2.4 Expert Review........................................................................................................................5
3. SUMMARY OF CHANGES.......................................................................................................5
References........................................................................................................................................7
Appendix – Chapter 5: Updated Human Factors Criteria for Displays

iii
iv
 Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Alan Poston for giving his time and expertise by reviewing this
document and Kenneth Allendoerfer for helpful discussions.

v
1. INTRODUCTION
Today, computer displays have become commonplace in the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) work environments. In the past, these computer displays consisted almost exclusively of
Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs). This is no longer the case. Due to recent advances in technology,
the number and type of different displays has increased dramatically. Whereas, previously, the
decision on which display to purchase may have depended on only one or two factors, now there
are dozens of factors to take into consideration, particularly when choosing between different
display technologies. This can lead to confusion on the part of the decision makers responsible
for procuring new displays.

The FAA is in the process of modernizing the National Airspace System (NAS) (FAA, 2007b).
New systems are being added to the NAS and older systems are being upgraded. Many of the
new systems being added to the NAS include new displays. Other existing systems have a set
schedule for technology refresh, which often includes the upgrade of displays (FAA, 2007a).
As the number of displays and frequency of use has increased within the FAA, the need for good
human factors display standards has also increased. Good quality displays that follow human
factors principles can benefit user performance, safety, and user health. Thus, in order for the
FAA to reach its modernization goals, decision makers will need to have access to current
information such as that provided in this chapter.

This document summarizes the process followed by the research team in the development of an
updated and revised set of display criteria. We explain the research and revision process used
for creating this set of criteria in this document, followed by an appendix containing the design
criteria. The material in the appendix is intended to replace the current material on displays in
the Human Factors Design Standard (HFDS) (Ahlstrom & Longo, 2003).

Although Ahlstrom and Longo (2003) originally combined the material on displays with the
material on printers in a single chapter in the HFDS, this revision effort addresses only the
display information. We will address information on printers in a subsequent revision effort.

1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this document is to provide an updated set of criteria on displays that meets the
need of the FAA missions and systems and to describe the process used to create these criteria.

1.2 Scope
This document is limited in scope to displays such as those used to interact with or view
computer-generated information. It does not address criteria for mechanical display devices such
as counters, flags, and moving pointers. It also does not include touch screen displays. Touch
screen displays are addressed in another chapter.

The majority of the criteria offered in this chapter are sufficiently generic to apply across a range
of FAA operating environments; however, certain paragraphs may not be applicable to all
operating situations. We have provided additional information to assist the decision maker in
determining the tradeoffs and suitability related to the design criteria, where relevant.

1
The purpose of a display is to support the user in accomplishing a specific function by conveying
specific information. The characteristics of the hardware necessary to achieve this goal depend
on a number of factors. These factors are related to the tasks that the user must perform in order
to complete the overall objective and the information and operating characteristics involved in
accomplishing the tasks. Some displays may be perfectly suitable for one purpose, but
inadequate for another. For example, a display suitable in a normal office environment may not be
satisfactory for a high brightness environment like an Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT).
Therefore, the first step system designers should carry out when developing or procuring a visual
display is to define the function of the display.

Some questions that may be relevant in understanding the function supported by the display
include the following:
1. What are the specific tasks to be accomplished with the display?
2. What information should it display?
3. How critical is the information on the display?
4. How frequently does the user refer to or interact with the information on the display?
5. Is the information static or dynamic?
6. How critical is it for color to be accurately depicted?
7. From what angles and distances will the user view the display?
8. What are the ambient lighting conditions under which the display will be used?
9. What are the physical environmental conditions (e.g., vibration, temperature,
dirt/environmental contaminants) under which the display will be used?
10. Are there space constraints for the display?
11. What is the level of detail and/or accuracy required for displayed information?
12. What are the time frames of display use (e.g., 8 hours a day, 24 hours a day)?
13. Is the information on the display used in isolation or in conjunction with other
information?
14. What else (other tasks) does the user need to do while viewing the display?
15. How does the user interact with the display (e.g., does the user monitor the display
constantly or periodically or does the display react to user input)?
16. How will the display be maintained?
17. What are the characteristics of the target user audience for the display (e.g., age, visual
acuity, color perception, anthropometry)?
18. What are the users’ experiences and expectations related to the display?

2
These questions are critical for defining the display requirements. An effective display optimizes
the match between the user, tasks, conditions, and equipment. Although the criteria contained
within the appendix can help the decision makers, each situation is in some way unique. Thus,
the use of the information within this document alone will not guarantee the best display for the
task. The design/procurement process should include formal assessment, prototyping, or
simulation with users performing typical tasks under typical operating conditions, as appropriate.
The appropriateness of the assessment technique will depend on the aspect of the display that is
of interest. For example, a mock up of the physical work space may be necessary if the
ergonomics of interaction is important, but not if the aspect of interest is resistance to
environmental contaminants.

1.3 Shall and Should

Each specification is identified as a “shall” or “should” statement. A solid, black square (■)
adjacent to the specification identifies the “shall” statements. These originate from or are
comparable to statements from authoritative sources such as those associated with FAA orders,
standards, military specifications, and valid peer-reviewed research.

Each “should” statement is identified by an open, white square (□). These represent best
practices guidance that is applicable in most cases but may involve trade-offs or be influenced by
domain or system-specific factors.

2. METHOD
Researchers organized the revision process in phases that included the review and verification of
information from the HFDS; identification of new source material; systematic evaluation of
literature, reorganization, addition, and revision of certain topic areas; addition of information to
justify the design criteria and define tradeoffs associated with the design criteria; and creation of
supplemental information. We distributed this document and the attached appendix with the
design criteria to subject matter experts for review.

2.1 Review of the Human Factors Design Standard

In the first phase of this effort, researchers from the Human Factors Team-Atlantic City sought
out guidelines and standards that pertained to computer display procurement and design. We
took the information in displays from the existing HFDS chapter and placed it into a column of a
spreadsheet, with one paragraph per cell. As we reviewed each standard, we created a new
column in the spreadsheet, matching the new information with the existing information. Using
this method, we were able to compare information from other sources against the current
information from the HFDS and against each other. When there was new information beyond
what was already present in the HFDS, we created a new row near other related information. We
then updated the information from the HFDS, as appropriate. The researchers used the reference
lists from the standards and guidelines to identify primary sources. When possible, we obtained
primary sources to verify the information within the guidelines and standards.

The researchers then expanded their search to identify current research related to existing and
emerging displays published in the literature. We used multiple keywords and acronyms,
including terms such as CRT, Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), and Video Display Terminal (VDT).
We searched databases available through the Internet such as Ingenta (www.ingenta.com),

3
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) (www.acm.org), and Google Scholar
(www.google.com). These databases allowed us to review abstracts for relevancy. If the
abstract appeared relevant, we would request the full article through interlibrary loan or by
contacting the author directly. We added keywords from relevant articles to our list of search
terms, as appropriate. Once we received and reviewed the full text articles, we added the
relevant references to a table. We used the table to summarize important information from the
article, with columns for the reference, purpose, experimental procedure, and experimental
results. This is a technique that we used successfully before to help us review, compare, and
analyze large quantities of information from the literature (Ahlstrom & Kudrick, 2004a, 2004b).
We used the information from the literature as appropriate to supplement and justify the
information from the other sources. Upon review of each source, researchers weighed the
relevancy, adequacy, and validity of the material before including it in the document. We
rewrote relevant information from the literature into shall or should statements that could be used
in requirements documents. When warranted by the new information, we updated existing
information or created a new specification. When new source material proved specifications in
the current document were outdated or invalid, these specifications were revised or deleted as
necessary.

In the process of our literature search, we discovered that there were limitations to the existing
research literature. The operational environments and use of displays in the literature focused
mainly on typical office or home use. FAA operating environments include not only office-type
environments, but also many environments atypical to normal office use. We felt it was
necessary not only to address issues typical to a normal office environment, but also those that
are somewhat unique to the FAA. We were aware of several FAA studies that had addressed
some of these issues. Thus, in addition to our Internet literature search, we sought out
documents related to the acquisition and testing of monitors and displays for the FAA. These
documents evaluated the suitability of monitors specifically for FAA environments. The
majority of these documents focused on displays for ATCTs. ATCTs have specialized needs
because controllers often view the information at an angle or distance different than the typical
office environment, and the lighting conditions can vary from high brightness in the daylight
hours to very dark at night (Crown Communications, Inc, 1998; FAA, 2002). Additionally, FAA
displays are often used continuously as opposed to the 8-hour timeframe of most office displays.

In addition to reviewing documentation, we spoke to individuals who were involved in monitor

acquisitions and solicited feedback on issues and concerns that arose during past FAA monitor
acquisitions. Among other issues, these concerns included cleaning, aspect ratio and resolution,
and off-axis color shift.

2.2 Reorganization
With the addition, deletion, and revision of many of the existing specifications and the creation
of new specifications, we needed to reorganize the entire chapter. With the goal of enhancing
document usability, researchers had volunteer HFDS users perform card sorts with the
specifications (Ahlstrom & Allendoerfer, 2004). The researchers then used the results of the
card sort to organize the chapter.

4
2.3 Additional Information
Users are often able to implement only some of the design specifications, but not all of them, due
to budget constraints, time constraints, or other concerns. These users need to know what the
consequences might be of violating design specifications or under which conditions violation of
design specifications might be acceptable. Feedback from actual FAA users indicated that it was
important to supply justification for the specifications within the standard (Ahlstrom, 2005).
Thus, throughout the document, the researchers added paragraphs of information that provide the
users with the basis they need to make informed decisions when faced with difficult design
choices.

After review of the material and discussions with several human factors experts who had past
experience in FAA display acquisitions, we became concerned that the users needed help in the
interpretation and application of some of the material within the chapter. This need was further
reinforced by requests that our team received from programs within the FAA asking for our help
in determining aspect ratio, resolution, and visual angle for current procurement efforts. We
decided to develop additional material as a supplement to the chapter on displays. The
supplemental materials include interactive tools that will be available on our website
(http://hf.tc.faa.gov). One tool will allow the user to apply the guidance on visual angle by
calculating visual angle based on other inputs or calculating other inputs required to achieve a
given visual angle (visual angle calculator). Another tool calculates character size based on
aspect ratio and resolution (resolution and character size calculator). These tools are intended to
help the user apply the material contained within the standard. We may add other tools as
necessary.

2.4 Expert Review

We circulated a draft of the newly created chapter among a group of human factors professionals
for review and comment. Reviewers included those individuals both inside and outside the FAA.
We asked the reviewers to provide feedback on the chapter’s organization, content, clarity, and
relevance. We used the reviewers’ comments to make improvements on the final document.

3. SUMMARY OF CHANGES
The revision of the HFDS information on displays (Chapter 5) created notable changes. The
primary change in the chapter is the update of information to include newer technologies and the
lessons learned from research. The earlier chapter was published when display technology was
in its infancy. At that time, the primary display technology was the CRT. Changes in the
chapter address newer technologies not previously addressed and also incorporate research that
was not available when the earlier chapter was created.

The reorganization of the information in this document involved regrouping, separating, and
removing certain redundant, obsolete, or unverifiable guidelines. New guidelines replaced
outdated material, where warranted.

We created these standards to aid in uniformity and cohesion of the design, use, and procurement
of displays. However, as with any set of standards, common sense and advice from human
factors professionals should be sought for use in specific applications.

5
The Human Factors Criteria for Displays: A Human Factors Design Standard Update of
Chapter 5 should be considered a living document. It will be updated as necessary to keep
abreast of emerging technology, additional research, technological advances, and user feedback.

The researchers attempted to create a useful, organized, and comprehensive document. This is
evidenced throughout the document where the user will find that each standard has at least one
valid source. The effort to supply the user with an organized, easy-to-use reference document is
also evidenced in the arrangement of the report.

The researchers understand that there is always room for improvement and encourage comments
and feedback. Comments and feedback should be sent to the first author (Vicki Ahlstrom) at the
Human Factors Team – Atlantic City, FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center, Atlantic City
International Airport, NJ 08405. The Document Improvement Proposal appears on the last page
of this document.

An appendix presents the full set of display design criteria. A table of contents precedes the
document. A list of references and a glossary containing key terms follows the standards.

6
 References

Ahlstrom, V. (2005). Human factors design standard maintenance plan [Internal Report].
Atlantic City International Airport, NJ: FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center.

Ahlstrom, V., & Allendoerfer, K. (2004). Information organization for a portal using a card-
sorting technique (DOT/FAA/CT-TN04/31). Atlantic City International Airport, NJ:
FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center.

Ahlstrom, V., & Kudrick, B. (2004a). Human factors criteria for the design and procurement of
keyboards: A human factors design standard update of Chapter 9. Atlantic City
International Airport, NJ: FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center.

Ahlstrom, V., & Kudrick, B. (2004b). Human factors criteria for the design and procurement of
non-keyboard interaction devices (NKIDs): A human factors design standard update of
Chapter 9. Atlantic City International Airport, NJ: FAA William J. Hughes Technical
Center.

Ahlstrom, V., & Longo, K. (Eds.). (2003). Human factors design standard (HF-STD-001).
Atlantic City International Airport, NJ: FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center.
Crown Communications, Inc. (1998). STARS air traffic control tower lighting measurements
results report (C012-003-016). Washington, DC: Author.

Federal Aviation Administration. (2002). Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System

(STARS) Supplemental Display Monitor (SDM) human factors assessment final report
(Report number ACB2202002-0). Atlantic City International Airport, NJ: FAA William
J. Hughes Technical Center, National Airspace System Human Factors Group.

Federal Aviation Administration. (2007a). Capital investment plan fiscal years 2007-2012.
Washington, DC: Author.
Federal Aviation Administration. (2007b). Federal Aviation Administration flight plan 2007-
2011. Washington, DC: Author.

7
 Appendix
Chapter 5: Updated Human Factors Criteria for Displays
 Table of Contents

Page
5 DISPLAYS .............................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.1 Visual Displays................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.1 General................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.2 Cords, cables, and plugs......................................................................................... 5-2
5.1.3 Adjustability........................................................................................................... 5-3
5.1.4 Location and arrangement...................................................................................... 5-3
5.1.5 Temporal characteristics ........................................................................................ 5-8
5.1.6 Luminance and contrast ......................................................................................... 5-9
5.1.7 Glare control ........................................................................................................ 5-11
5.1.8 Resolution ............................................................................................................ 5-13
5.1.9 Linearity............................................................................................................... 5-14
5.1.10 Color characteristics........................................................................................... 5-15
5.2 Display Types ................................................................................................................. 5-17
5.2.1 Flat-panel displays ............................................................................................... 5-17
5.2.2 Large-screen displays........................................................................................... 5-17
5.2.3 Large-screen optical projection displays ............................................................. 5-20
5.3 Displays for Selected Applications................................................................................. 5-22
5.3.1 Stereoscopic and binocular displays .................................................................... 5-22
5.3.2 Heads-up display.................................................................................................. 5-24
5.3.3 See-through displays............................................................................................ 5-25
5.3.4 Helmet-mounted displays .................................................................................... 5-25
5.4 Special Conditions .......................................................................................................... 5-27
5.4.1 Vibration .............................................................................................................. 5-27
References.................................................................................................................................. 5-28
Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 5-31

List of Exhibits

Exhibit 5.1.4.14 Optimum vertical and horizontal visual fields................................................. 5-6

iii
5 DISPLAYS
This chapter covers different types of displays used for computer
information output; sometimes referred to as Video Display
Terminals (VDTs) or Video Display Units (VDUs), including
Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs), Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs),
Plasma displays, projection displays, and stereoscopic displays.
It does not address touch screen displays, visual indicators such as
Light Emitting Diode (LED) displays, or lights accompanying
switches and controls. Touch screen displays are addressed in the
chapter on non-keyboard interaction devices (Chapter 9) and visual
indicators are addressed in the chapter on controls and visual
indicators (Chapter 6).

5.1 Visual Displays

5.1.1 General
ƒ 5.1.1.1 Make displays function under operational conditions.
Visual displays shall function under any circumstance
corresponding with the operational and use philosophies of the
system. [Source: Department of Defense (DOD), 1999]

ƒ 5.1.1.2 Make displays legible under all conditions. Visual

displays shall be legible under all anticipated viewing conditions.
[Source: DOD, 1999]

Discussion. Factors affecting the legibility of a display

include the nature and characteristics of the display itself,
ambient lighting, and viewing distance.

ƒ 5.1.1.3 Surface quality. The display surface shall have no visible

defects (i.e., bubbles or scratches), which could increase errors,
reduce task speed, or cause visual discomfort. [Source: Hopper,
Dolezal, Schur, & Liccione, 1994; International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), 1992]

à 5.1.1.4 Evaluate through prototyping. The suitability and

effectiveness of a display should be evaluated using representative
tasks, users, and environmental settings before being incorporated in
a new system. [Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

à 5.1.1.5 Environmental impact. Displays should be selected to

minimize environmental impact during manufacturing, use
(including storage and breakage), and final disposal (e.g., in a
landfill). [Source: Hopper et al., 1994]

à 5.1.1.6 Durability. A display should be designed to minimize

maintenance, and provide protection of components from
environmental contaminants, abrasion, vibration, and
maintenance-induced damage. [Source: Hopper et al., 1994]

5-1
 ƒ 5.1.1.7 Reliability. The mean-time-between failure goal of the
display shall be more than 10,000 hours. [Source: Hopper et al., 1994]

ƒ 5.1.1.8 Health and safety. The display shall be designed so as to

preclude injury during operation and maintenance. [Source: Hopper
et al., 1994]

ƒ 5.1.1.9 Surface temperature. Displays shall not expose users or

maintainers to surface temperatures that exceed 104 degrees F.
[Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 1995,
6.5.3]

à 5.1.1.10 Acoustic noise from displays with fan. Display fans

should make as little noise as possible, not to exceed the A
weighted sound pressure level of 44dB when operating and 39 dB
when idling, to minimize user annoyance. [Source: TCO ’05, 2005]

ƒ 5.1.1.11 Smooth edges. Displays shall have no sharp edges or

pinch points where the user or maintainer may come into contact
with them. [Source: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2002]

à 5.1.1.12 Easy to clean. Displays should be easy to clean without

requiring specialized cleaners or procedures. [Source: FAA, 2002 ]

Additional information. In many FAA environments,

users write on the screens with grease pencils (also known
as china markers). Displays are often exposed to dirt,
fingerprints, and environmental contaminants. Users need
to clean the displays while the displays are on and
running. [Source: FAA, 2002]

à 5.1.1.13 Aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of a display should not

adversely impact displayed data. [Source: Crown Communications,
Inc, 1998]

Additional information. The aspect ratio of a display is

the ratio between the horizontal and vertical dimensions of
the display. Common aspect ratios include 4:3, 4:5, and
16:10. Some FAA displays even have a 1:1 aspect ratio.

à 5.1.1.14 Controls should conform to Chapter 6. Controls for

displays should conform to the design criteria contained in
Chapter 6, Controls and visual indicators.

5.1.2 Cords, cables, and plugs

à 5.1.2.1 Prevention of insertion errors. It should be obvious to
the user where and in which direction to insert a plug into a
display. [Source: DOD, 1992]

5-2
 ƒ 5.1.2.2 Protect connectors from disconnect or damage. Display
cables and connectors shall be designed or protected so that they
are not easily dislodged or damaged by the movement of people
or objects in their vicinity. [Source: DOD, 1992]

Additional information. One study found that some

equipment outages in the FAA could be linked to cables
or plugs that were disconnected when someone bumped
into or tripped over them. [Source: Ahlstrom & Hartman, 2001]
5.1.3 Adjustability
ƒ 5.1.3.1 Tilt. It shall be possible to tilt displays up or down
between -5° and +20° in steps or continuously. [Source: TCO’03,
2005b]

à 5.1.3.2 Height adjustment. It should be possible to raise or lower

the display by at least 110 mm in total in steps or continuously.
[Source: TCO ’03, 2005b]

ƒ 5.1.3.3 Safe adjustment. There shall be no danger of pinching

fingers when adjusting the monitor. [Source: Board of Standards
Review/ Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (BSR/HFES), 2002; TCO
’03, 2005b]

ƒ 5.1.3.4 Swivel. It shall be possible to swivel the display by a

minimum of 45 degrees to the left or right in steps or
continuously. [Source: TCO ’03, 2005b]

à 5.1.3.5 Adjust to user comfort. Users should be able to easily

angle, tilt, and swivel a display to maintain a comfortable
working position. [Source: ISO, 2006]

ƒ 5.1.3.6 Stability. The display shall be stable in all adjustment

positions. [Source: TCO ’03, 2005b]

5.1.4 Location and arrangement

ƒ 5.1.4.1 Locate displays to be readable without assuming
uncomfortable positions. Displays shall be located so that a
user can read them to the degree of accuracy required without
having to assume an uncomfortable, awkward, or unsafe position.
[Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.4.2 Viewing angle. All areas of the display surface shall be

legible from within at least 40 degrees of the axis centered on,
and normal to, the screen. [Source: ISO, 1992]

ƒ 5.1.4.3 Parallax error. Displays shall be located so that they can

be read from the design eye point with no discernible parallax.
[Source: NASA, 1995]

5-3
à 5.1.4.4 Make readable without special equipment. A user
should be able to read a visual display without the use of a ladder,
a flashlight, or other special equipment. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.1.4.5 Locate directly in front of user The most frequently used

screen should be directly in front of the user in his or her normal
working position. [Source: Department of Energy (DOE), 1992]

Discussion. Locating the screen off-center can cause the

user to adopt uncomfortable or awkward positions, leading
to pain. Exceptions to this rule are when the users look at
the monitor infrequently.

ƒ 5.1.4.6 Simultaneous use. A visual display that must be

monitored concurrently with manipulation of a related control
shall be located so that it can be read to within required accuracy
while adjusting the control. [Source: NASA, 1995]

ƒ 5.1.4.7 Multiple displays. When the manipulation of one control

requires the reading of several displays, the control shall be
placed as near as possible to the related displays, but not so as to
obscure displays when manipulating the control. [Source: NASA,
1995]

ƒ 5.1.4.8 Arrange displays consistently. The arrangement of

functionally similar displays shall be consistent across systems.
[Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.1.4.9 Make line of sight below horizontal. For a typical work

environment, the line of sight from the viewer's eyes to the center
of a frequently used screen should be between 10° and 60° below
horizontal, preferably allowing the user to set the angle most
comfortable for him or her within this range. [Source: Balci &
Aghazadeh, 1998; DOD, 1999; DOE, 1992; ISO, 1992]

Discussion. The resting position of the eyes, considered to

be the most comfortable position, is 15° below the horizontal.
However, a lower monitor position improves the ability to
accommodate and facilitates convergence (the turning in of
eyes to focus on a nearby object), particularly for persons
over 40 years old. Additionally, some research claims that
a monitor location 40° below horizontal can reduce
discomfort in the neck, shoulders, forearms, and wrists for
users wearing bifocals. By placing the top of the screen
below eye level, the user can view the information on the
screen using a downward gaze. When people view the
displays at eye level, they tend to blink less, and eyes can
get dry and irritated. A slight downward gaze exposes less
of the eye to the atmosphere, preventing dry eyes. It is
important, however, not to position the monitor in such a
way that the user is forced to adopt an uncomfortable
position to view the monitor. [Source: Balci & Aghazadeh, 1998;

5-4
 Krimsky, 1948; Morgan, Cook, Chapanis, & Lund, 1963; Ripple, 1952;
Tsubota & Nakamori, 1993; Tyrrell & Leibowitz, 1990]

à 5.1.4.10 Orient perpendicular to line of sight. Display screens

should be positioned so that the face is perpendicular to the user's
line of sight whenever feasible. [Source: DOE, 1992; NASA, 1995]

Discussion. Tilting the monitor downward can lead to

increased discomfort both physically and visually,
particularly in the neck area, versus a monitor tilted back a
little. [Source: Ankrum, Hansen, & Nemeth, 1995; Ankrum &
Nemeth, 1995]

ƒ 5.1.4.11 Avoid excessive tilt. The display face shall not be tilted
more than 45° from the normal line of sight. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.1.4.12 Group task-related displays together. All displays

necessary to support a user's activities or sequence of activities
should be grouped together. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.4.13 Arrange according to function and sequence. Displays

shall be arranged in relation to one another according to their
sequence of use or the functional relations of the components
they represent. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Discussion. In general, it is beneficial if displays are

arranged sequentially within a functional group so that they
provide a left-to-right or top-to-bottom information flow
within the group because this is how people read.

ƒ 5.1.4.14 Locate critical displays in central visual field. Critical

or frequently used displays shall be located in the central visual
field, as illustrated in Exhibit 5.1.4.14, and occupy a privileged
position in that field (e.g., the top or left-most position). [Source:
DOD, 1999]

Discussion. Focal vision is the central 30° of the visual

field, pictured as the shaded area in the top panel of the
Exhibit 5.1.4.14 (along with the range of eye movements
with the head stationary). This is the area that people use
to look at objects in the world, moving their eyes as needed
to bring images of the object on to the fovea, which is the
area of highest acuity. When an object is outside of the
focal area, a person will usually turn the head rather than
simply move the eyes. The range of head rotation is
illustrated in the second panel of Exhibit 5.1.4.14. The
combined range of combined head and eye movement is
illustrated in the third panel of Exhibit 5.1.4.14. By
locating frequently used displays in the central 30° of
visual field, the user is not required to move his or her head
to bring the information into the focal area, presumably
minimizing neck strain.

5-5
 Exhibit 5.1.4.14 Optimum vertical and horizontal visual fields

ƒ 5.1.4.15 Distance for monitors with controls. If there is a

frequently used control associated with a display, the display and
control shall be within normal reach and vision of the user, not to
exceed 635 mm (25 in.). [Source: DOD, 1999; Ministry of Defence,
2000]

Discussion. The reach distance for a 5th percentile female

is 26 inches, so setting the distance at 25 inches ensures
that the 5th percentile female can reach the controls. The
5th percentile female measurements and reach ranges
represent the customary minimal design criteria. Designing
to accommodate the minimal reach range will increase the
likelihood that the entire user population can reach the
controls.

5-6
à 5.1.4.16 Maintain at least a minimum viewing distance. The
viewing distance from the eye to a display should not be less than
500 mm (20 in.), preferably 980-1000 mm (38-40 in.), unless the
periods of viewing will be short or if dim signals must be
detected, in which case the minimum can be 250 mm (10 in.).
[Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; Jaschinski-Kruza, 1990; Owens & Wolf-Kelly,
1987]

Discussion. In general, a further viewing distance is

preferred. Earlier recommendations were to locate the
monitor at the same viewing distance as the distance for
reading hard copy 307-410 mm (12-16 in.). However, new
research has found that eyestrain is not increased when the
document and monitor were viewed at different distances.
Less eyestrain is reported for 980 mm (38 in.) viewing
distances than 660 mm (26 in.). Users judged 50 cm (20 in.)
as too close for computer work and performance suffered at
this distance over a 100 cm (40 in.) distance. Virtual
keyboards and touch screens are an exception to this rule,
and are addressed in another chapter. [Source: BSR/HFES,
2002; DOD, 1999; ISO, 1992; Jaschinski-Kruza, 1990; Owens & Wolf-
Kelly, 1987]

à 5.1.4.17 Determine maximum viewing distance by legibility.

Maximum viewing distance for displays should be determined by
the legibility of the displayed information. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Discussion. The further the screen is from the viewer, the

more difficult it is for the eyes to resolve fine detail. This
can often be fixed by displaying screen items at larger
resolution.

à 5.1.4.18 Modify displayed information when viewing distance

exceeds 50 cm (20 in.). Information on displays that are located
at viewing distances greater than 50 cm (20 in.) should be
appropriately modified in aspects such as display size, symbol
size, brightness ranges, and resolution to ensure legibility of
displayed information. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Discussion. A general rule is that items viewed at twice

the distance will appear half as large. As the preferred
character size for readability is 20-22 min of arc and the
preferred size for color discrimination is 30 min of arc, the
size of the characters on the display will need to be larger
to maintain the preferred character size at greater
distances. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002]

à 5.1.4.19 Allow users to adjust viewing distance where possible.

Although there may be a set normal viewing distance, workplace
design should allow observers to view displays from other
distances. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5-7
 Example. The set distance between the viewer’s eye and
the display screen may be 50 cm (20 in.), but the viewer
may occasionally want to lean forward to take a closer
look at the information displayed on the screen.

Discussion. Users have individual differences in their

preferred viewing distances. Particularly for workstations
with a single user, it is preferable for users to adjust the
viewing distance to their preferred distance. Users report
more visual strain when they are forced to work at a
distance shorter than their preferred distance. [Source:
Jaschinski, Heuer, & Kylian, 1998]

5.1.5 Temporal characteristics

ƒ 5.1.5.1 Refresh rate. Non-interlaced CRT displays shall be
refreshed at a rate of at least 80 Hz, preferably 100 Hz or higher,
to avoid the perception of flicker for photosensitive users.
[Source: Bauer & Cavonius, 1980; Cardosi & Murphy, 1995; DOE, 1992;
NASA, 1995; Vanderheiden & Vanderheiden, 1991]

Definition. Refresh rate is the rate in cycles per second

(Hz) at which the displayed contents of a computer screen
are periodically regenerated.

Discussion. A vertical refresh rate of 100 Hz on a non-

interlaced monitor is considered sufficient to ensure that
flicker is well beyond the threshold of perception even in
the peripheral vision where sensitivity is higher. (A 100
Hz refresh rate on an interlaced monitor refreshes a given
line only 50 times a second, causing noticeable flicker.)
Individual differences exist in flicker sensitivity. The
perception of flicker increases in the peripheral vision, so
the bigger the monitor is, the higher the refresh rate will
need to be to ensure flicker is not a problem. [Source: Bauer
& Cavonius, 1980; Cardosi & Murphy, 1995; DOE, 1992; NASA,
1995; Vanderheiden & Vanderheiden, 1991]

ƒ 5.1.5.2 Flicker. Displays shall have no apparent flicker to at least

90% of a sample of the user population when viewed under the
expected conditions of use. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; DOE, 1992;
ISO, 1992]

Discussion. The refresh rate is one of several factors that

can cause the user to perceive flicker. The perception of
flicker increases in the peripheral vision, so the bigger the
monitor is, the higher the refresh rate will need to be to
ensure flicker is not a problem.

5-8
 Ambient illumination, display contrast, interference from
other equipment, colors used, and the phosphor persistence
of the monitor also contribute to the perception of monitor
flicker. One of the traditional ways of minimizing flicker
for CRTs is by keeping the screen as dark as possible.

For CRTs, a longer decay rate on the phosphor (high

persistence phosphor) decreases the flicker perception but
can produce trails or after images behind moving elements.
There are also individual differences and age differences in
the ability to perceive flicker, with younger people
generally being more sensitive.

à 5.1.5.3 Minimum image formation time. If motion artifacts are

not important, image formation time should not exceed 55 ms.
[Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992; BSR/HFES, 2002]

Definition. Motion artifacts are the after images (made

up of the previously drawn object that have not yet
decayed enough to disappear) that one sees that appear to
follow a moving display object. They often look like the
tail of a comet following the object in motion.

à 5.1.5.4 Image formation time when motion artifacts are

important. If it is important to avoid motion artifacts, image
formation time should not exceed 10 ms. [Source: Avery & Bowser,
1992]

5.1.6 Luminance and contrast

ƒ 5.1.6.1 Illumination levels. Critical visual displays shall be
capable of providing clear indication of equipment condition
within the following room illumination levels consistent with the
area of intended use:
a. Control Room: 5 to 50 footcandles.
b. Equipment Room: 50 to 100 footcandles
c. Air Traffic Control Tower: 1 to 6,000 footcandles
d. TRACON: 1 to 50 footcandles
e. Typical office environment: 20 to 50 footcandles. [Source:
FAA, 2005; OSHA, 2007]

ƒ 5.1.6.2 Minimize luminance variation across the display.

Luminance shall not vary by more than 1.5:1 (LMax:LMin) from the
center to the edge of the display. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; ISO,
2006]

Definition. Luminance is the physical measure of the

amount of light emitted by or reflected in a given direction
from the display. Luminance is expressed in candela per
meter squared or footlamberts. Footlamberts is a

5-9
 measure that has been corrected for the visual system’s
differential sensitivity to different wavelengths, giving an
approximation to perceived brightness. [Source: Murch,
1987]

à 5.1.6.3 Luminance degradation. Luminance should not degrade

by more than 3% of the original luminance for each 1000 hours
of operation. [Source: Hopper et al., 1994]

à 5.1.6.4 Maximum luminance for a CRT. The maximum

luminance of a CRT should be ≥ 120 cd/m2 (35 fL) for normal
use. [Source: TCO ’03, 2005a]

à 5.1.6.5 Maximum luminance for a flat panel display. The

maximum luminance of a flat panel display should be ≥ 150
cd/m2 (43 fL) for normal use. [Source: TCO ’03, 2005b]

ƒ 5.1.6.6 Character luminance. Either characters or their

background, whichever has higher luminance, shall have a
luminance of at least 35 cd/m2 (10 fL), with at least 100 cd/m2 (30
fL) preferred. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; DOD, 1999; Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, 2002]

Discussion. Increasing luminance reduces pupil diameter,

reducing distortions and improving speed of
accommodation and depth of field, especially for users
over 40 who tend to lose some of their ability to
accommodate. However, higher luminance increases
sensitivity to flicker. [Source: Bauer & Cavonius, 1980]

ƒ 5.1.6.7 Off-axis contrast. The display contrast shall not change

by more than 20% when viewed at +/- 30 degrees. [Source: TCO
’03, 2005b]

ƒ 5.1.6.8 Screen luminance. The screen illumination shall not

contribute more than 25% of screen brightness through diffuse
reflection and phosphor excitation. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.6.9 Provide adjustable contrast and brightness. Easy-to-use

controls shall be provided that are capable of providing multiple
step or continuously variable contrast and brightness consistent
with the ambient environment. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.1.6.10 Luminance range. A control should allow the user to

vary the luminance from 10% luminance to 100% luminance.
[Source: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2002]

ƒ 5.1.6.11 Detection of weakest target. Adjustment of brightness,

contrast, and other electronic parameters shall permit the
detection of the weakest target that is simulated. [Source: Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, 2002]

5-10
 ƒ 5.1.6.12 Dimming to off. Displays shall not be capable of being
dimmed to a level beyond which they cannot be differentiated
from the OFF condition. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Additional information. Failure to differentiate between

ON/OFF conditions could lead to critical operator failures
(i.e., failure to detect or perform a critical step in an
operation). [Source: NASA, 1995]

ƒ 5.1.6.13 Contrast adjustment. A control shall be provided to

adjust the foreground-background contrast ratio. [Source: DOD,
1999; NASA, 1995]

ƒ 5.1.6.14 Contrast ratio. The contrast ratio of the display

foreground to background shall be greater than 3:1; a contrast
ratio of 7:1 is preferred. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; ISO, 1992; Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, 2002]

ƒ 5.1.6.15 Minimum contrast ratio for high ambient light. As the

highest ambient light level is reached, the contrast ratio between
the lowest intensity symbology and the background shall degrade
to not less than 2:1 (unless a lower contrast has been manually
selected). [Source: NASA, 1995]

ƒ 5.1.6.16 Facilitate detection of faint signals. When the detection

of faint signals is required, and the ambient illumination may be
above 2.7 lux (0.25 fc), displays shall be hooded, shielded,
recessed, or employ a suitable filter system. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.1.6.17 Display luminance relative to adjacent surfaces. With

the exception of emergency indicators, no light source in the
immediate surrounding area should be of greater luminance than
the display signal. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.6.18 Provide adequate ambient illumination. The ambient

lighting levels in areas of the display shall not degrade the
visibility of signals on the display. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.6.19 Provide controls to modulate ambient lighting. If

ambient illumination in an area where a display is used is variable,
controls shall be provided to dim all light sources, including
illuminated panels, indicators, and switches in the immediate
vicinity of the display where necessary to facilitate visibility of
displayed information. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5.1.7 Glare control

Glare may be of two types, diffuse or specular. Diffuse glare is
caused by the general environmental illuminance, which
effectively reduces the display contrast. Specular glare is the
appearance of unwanted images (reflections) on the display
surface. The most effective method of glare control is to design

5-11
 the workplace so that neither type is produced. Other methods
include screen meshes placed over the display surface, etched
faceplates, anti-reflective coatings, and bonded quarterwave filters.
All of these degrade both contrast and resolution to some degree.

ƒ 5.1.7.1 Minimize or eliminate glare. Glare shall be eliminated

or minimized. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Discussion. Some of the methods that can be used to

eliminate or minimize glare are as follows;
a. place displays properly relative to light sources,
b. use indirect lighting,
c. use many dim light sources rather than a few bright
ones,
d. use hoods as long as they do not interfere with task
performance,
e. use an anti-glare treatment, such as a diffusing
surface or an optical coating (providing that it does
not decrease contrast luminance or contrast so that
it impacts performance), or
f. filter control of the light sources. [Source: BSR/HFES,
2002; DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.7.2 Anti-glare treatment. The use of anti-glare treatments

shall not cause the display to violate the requirements for
luminance, contrast, and resolution that may impact task
performance. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.7.3 Hoods. Hoods shall not be used to prevent or minimize

glare if they restrict the viewing angle of screens in a way such as
to interfere with tasks. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.7.4 Display shielding. Displays intended for use near windows

shall be shielded from sunlight entering the window or be designed
to be legible in sunlight. [Source: NASA, 1995]

ƒ 5.1.7.5 Make adjacent surfaces matte. Surfaces adjacent to the

display shall have a dull, matte finish. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.1.7.6 Use of glare reduction techniques. If glare reduction

techniques are used, they shall not noticeably degrade display
quality. [Source: ISO, 2006]

ƒ 5.1.7.7 Minimize reflections. Displays shall be constructed,

arranged, and mounted to minimize interference from reflections
of illumination sources, windows, and other visual displays.
[Source: DOD, 1999]

5-12
 Discussion. If necessary, shields, filters, or other
techniques may be used to ensure that system performance
is not degraded. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.1.7.8 Luminance of specular glare. The luminance contrast of

specular glare should be less than or equal to 1.25 [(LMin +
LSpecular Glare.)/ LMin]. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002]

5.1.8 Resolution
ƒ 5.1.8.1 Allow discrimination of similar characters. The display
shall have adequate resolution to allow the discrimination of
similar characters and codes from the expected operational
viewing distance. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Example. The letter "l" and the number "1", or the letter
"Z" and the number "2" are easily confused.

ƒ 5.1.8.2 Resolution for high reading speed. When high reading

speed is required, high resolution monitors with at least 90 pixels
per inch (90 dpi) shall be used. [Source: DOE, 1992]

Discussion. Higher resolution displays (greater than 90

dpi) are associated with increases in visual performance
and decreases in visual fatigue in visual search tasks.
[Source: Ziefle, 1998]

à 5.1.8.3 Resolution for complex symbols. Displays used for

displaying complex symbols and graphic detail should have at
least 100 pixels per inch (100 dpi). [Source: DOE, 1992]

à 5.1.8.4 Character formation -- vertical orientation. Characters

in a vertical orientation should be formed from a matrix of at
least 5 x 7 pixels minimum uppercase, 7 x 9 for continuous
reading, 4 x 5 minimum for super/subscript or information not
related to the task. [Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992; ISO, 1992]

à 5.1.8.5 Minimum character formation for nonvertical

orientation. Characters in a nonvertical orientation should be
formed from a matrix of at least 8 by 11 pixels, preferably 15 by
21 pixels. [Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

à 5.1.8.6 Character stroke width. Character stroke width should

be between 1/12 and 1/6 the character height, with wider strokes
preferred for positive polarity displays. [Source: Avery & Bowser,
1992; BSR/HFES, 2002; ISO, 1992]

Definition: Stroke width is the thickness of the lines

used to make up the number or letter.

5-13
 à 5.1.8.7 Minimum spacing between characters. For maximum
readability, characters should be separated by at least one stroke
width or pixel, with two pixels or stroke widths preferred. [Source:
Helander, 1992; ISO, 1992]

à 5.1.8.8 Minimum spacing between lines of text. For maximum

readability, lines of text should be separated by at least two stroke
widths or pixels, with 50-100% of character height separation
preferred. [Source: Helander, 1992]

à 5.1.8.9 Character width-to-height relationship. The width of

characters should be 0.5:1 to 1:1, with 0.6:1 to 0.9:1 preferred for
maximizing legibility. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002]

ƒ 5.1.8.10 Alphanumeric character and symbol size. The height of

alphanumeric characters and geometric or pictorial symbols shall
subtend a visual angle of at least 10 min arc for information not
critical to the task or not time critical and 16 min arc for
information critical to the task or when readability is important as
measured from the longest anticipated viewing distance, with 22-
24 min of arc preferred. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; DOD, 1999; ISO,
1992]

Definition. Visual angle is the angle subtended by

objects measured in minutes of arc. It represents an
apparent size of an object based on the relationship
between an object's distance from the viewer and its size
(perpendicular to the viewer's line of sight). For example,
if an object that is size h is at a distance d from the retina,
the visual angle subtended (x) is equal to arctan (h/d).

Note! The visual angle subtended by a character may

change if a monitor with one resolution is replaced by a
monitor with another resolution. Character height may be
defined in software by the number of pixels. A 10 pixel
character on a high resolution display is smaller than a
10 pixel character on a lower resolution display.

ƒ 5.1.8.11 Minimum display capability for producing characters.

Displays shall be capable of producing a character height of 20-
22 min of arc as measured at a normal viewing distance. [Source:
ISO, 2006]

5.1.9 Linearity
à 5.1.9.1 Avoid jitter. When tested in the intended operational
environment, deviations in the location of a displayed element
should be less than 2 mm per cm of viewing distance at
frequencies from 0.5 to 30 Hz. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002; ISO, 1992]

5-14
 Definition. Jitter is a departure from geometric stability.
It occurs when pixels in displayed objects move instead of
remaining in a fixed position.

Additional information. Jitter can be caused by

interference such as magnetic fields generated by other
equipment in the operational area such as fluorescent
lamps or other equipment or displays. Thus, it is
important to examine jitter in the operational environment
or conditions that approximate the intended operational
environment.

à 5.1.9.2 Maintain uniform element size. The size of a display

element (e.g., an alphanumeric character or symbol) should not
vary by more than 10% regardless of its location within the
display. [Source: American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 1988]

Discussion. If you type the capital letter E such that it

fills the screen, all of the Es, from the ones in the center to
those on the outer edge, should appear to be the same size.

ƒ 5.1.9.3 Minimize element displacement. The displacement of a

single display element’s position shall vary by less than 5% of the
display element box height relative to those above and below, or
right and left of it. [Source: ANSI, 1988; ISO, 1992]

ƒ 5.1.9.4 Maintain column and row linearity. Rows and columns

shall be parallel and orthogonal to each other with the linearity of
any column or row not varying by more than 2% of the length of
the column or row. [Source: ANSI, 1988]

5.1.10 Color characteristics

ƒ 5.1.10.1 Color temperature. Each color shall have a color
difference ∆ u’v’≤ 0.01 when compared to Commission
Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) u’ and v’ chromaticity
coordinates for corresponding correlated color temperatures.
[Source: CIE, 1976; TCO ’03, 2005b]

ƒ 5.1.10.2 Color uniformity ∆ u’v’ shall be ≤ 0.01 for the maximum

color deviation between measured active areas on the screen that
are intended to maintain the same color. [Source: CIE, 1976; TCO
’03, 2005b]

ƒ 5.1.10.3 Off-axis color uniformity ∆ u’v’ shall be ≤ 0.025 when it

is measured at +/- 30 degrees from the center of the screen.
[Source: CIE, 1976; TCO ’03, 2005b]

5-15
ƒ 5.1.10.4 RGB color settings. The display shall be able to
reproduce at minimum, CIE RGB color settings of:

Red Green Blue

u’ v’ u’ v’ u’ v’

> .411 > .503 ≤ .140 > .548 > .150 ≤ .224

[Source: CIE, 1976; TCO ’03, 2005a, 2005b]

à 5.1.10.5 Prevent color fringes. Displays should not have

noticeable color fringes or moiré patterns. [Source: DOD, 1999; ISO,
1992]

ƒ 5.1.10.6 Chromaticity desaturation. When exposed to ambient

illumination conditions of up to 6000 fc, the display primary
color chromaticity shall not exhibit more than a 20% reduction in
their color saturation. [Source: Hopper et al., 1994; Crown
Communications, Inc, 1998]

Additional information. Of the three colors, red, green,

and blue, red is often the most sensitive to desaturation
(shift toward white) under high illumination. When color
is desaturated, color coding becomes ineffective and text
can become difficult to read. [Source: Crown Communications,
Inc, 1998]
2
ƒ 5.1.10.7 Black level. The luminance of black shall be ≤ 2 cd/m
when the display luminance is set at the maximum brightness for
critical displays and displays used in dark-adapted environments.
[Source: TCO ’06, 2006]

Additional information. In order to produce satisfactory

brightness in environments with high ambient lighting
such as an Air Traffic Control Tower, some displays
increase overall brightness of the display. This can have
unintended negative consequences in an Air Traffic
Control Tower environment if the display cannot be
dimmed sufficiently at night. Displays that are bright
enough by which to read a watch at night when the
monitor is displaying black can cause disturbing
reflections that are likely to be unacceptable by the user.

à 5.1.10.8 Color contrast. Color contrast should be greater than 40

∆EYu’v’ if absolute color classification is necessary, 100 ∆EYu’v’ if
relative color classification is necessary. [Source: BSR/HFES, 2002;
CIE, 1976; Helander, 1992]

5-16
5.2 Display Types
5.2.1 Flat-panel displays
In flat-panel displays, images are formed from discrete, non-
overlapping, rectangular pixels. These images can differ from
images on CRTs in character-to-character spacing, interline
spacing, character and symbol design, the effect of ambient
illumination, image polarity, and failure mode. [Source: Avery &
Bowser, 1992]

à 5.2.1.1 Minimize pixel failure rate. Displays should be selected

and maintained so that the pixel failure rate does not exceed 1%.
[Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

ƒ 5.2.1.2 Full rows or columns of pixel defects. There shall be no

full rows or columns of defective subpixels. [Source: Hopper et al.,
1994]

ƒ 5.2.1.3 Acceptable ratio of cluster defects. The ratio of display

area in square centimeters (in square inches) to the number of
cluster defects shall be not less than 16:1 (25:1). [Source: Hopper et
al., 1994]

Additional information. A cluster defect is a group of two

or more adjacent color pixels containing one or more
defective subpixels.

ƒ 5.2.1.4 Impact of filed pixels on legibility. The presence of

defective or failed pixels shall not affect the legibility of critical
data, increase errors, reduce reading rate, or cause visual
discomfort. [Source: Hopper et al., 1994; ISO, 2006]

ƒ 5.2.1.5 Location of cluster defects. Displays shall not have any

cluster defects located in areas where critical information is to be
displayed. [Source: Hopper et al., 1994]

ƒ 52.1.6 Response time. The rise and fall response times shall be
less than 13 ms. [Source: TCO ’06, 2006]

5.2.2 Large-screen displays

The selection or design of a large-screen display, especially a
projection display, may be more complex than that of other
workstation displays. The effects of ambient illumination,
observer location, type of data to be displayed, visual acuity
for symbol size and contrast, screen size, screen format, symbol
luminance, and screen gain are all important factors.

5-17
à 5.2.2.1 When to use. Large-screen displays should be used when

a. more than one user needs to refer to the same displayed

information, but space or other constraints make the use of a
single, common display preferable to many, individual
displays;
b. one or more members of a team of users need to be able to
move about, yet still need access to displayed information;
c. space or other constraints preclude the use of individual
displays for each team member to call up commonly-used
information; or
d. it may be desirable to have general information available
to persons who should not interrupt on-going group
operations by looking over the shoulder(s) of individual
operator(s) to see individual displays. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.2.2 When not to use. Large-screen displays shall not be used

if the spatial and environmental conditions do not allow all users
to have appropriate visual access in terms of viewing distance,
angle, and lack of interference from intervening objects,
personnel, and ambient lighting. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.2.3 Viewing distance. The display shall be near enough that

the most distant viewers can resolve the critical details presented,
but not closer to any viewer than 1/2 the display width or height,
whichever is greater. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Additional information. The determination of the

maximum viewing distance on a large-screen display will
depend on an analysis of the information requirements of
individuals and their locations in the work area.
Application of this criterion must consider the types of
information contained in the group-view display, the ways
in which this information is used by individuals, the
locations of these individuals relative to the display, and
whether some or all or the large-screen display
information is available on separate displays located
closer to these individuals. For example, individuals may
need to resolve all details or may only need to detect
changes that require additional scrutiny. [Source: Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, 2002]

à 5.2.2.4 Off-centerline viewing angle. Individual viewers in a

fixed location should be no more than 10 degrees off the
centerline and multiple viewers should be no more than 30
degrees off the centerline with a preferred limit of 20 degrees.
[Source: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2002]

Additional Information: The determination of the

acceptability of off-centerline viewing should take into
account both the spatial distortion of the image and the

5-18
 effect of the viewing angle upon screen characteristics
such as brightness and color rendition. This guideline
addresses spatial distortion of the displayed image due to
the viewing angle. However, off-centerline viewing of
large-screen display devices may also result in (1) loss of
general brightness for high-gain screens and (2) loss of
color rendition in projection-type devices due to the
angles of reflection of the separate projection elements.
Loss of general brightness for high-gain screens is usually
not a problem until off-centerline viewing exceeds 25
degrees for beaded screens and 30 degrees for high-gain
metallic screens. These effects may further reduce
perceived resolution by reducing the effectiveness of color
codes and image contrast. Thus, the combined effects of
off-centerline viewing upon image distortion and screen
characteristics should be considered. [Source: Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, 2002]

à 5.2.2.5 Viewing of multiple display devices. When multiple,

large display devices are used, the normal work areas of each user
should be within the acceptable off-centerline viewing area of
each large display that each user must view. [Source: Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, 2002]

ƒ 5.2.2.6 Locate so that view is not obscured. A large-screen

display shall be located so that its critical users do not have their
view of it obscured by persons moving about in their normal
traffic patterns. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Additional information. There are two methods for

achieving this: (1) laterally staggering (off-setting)
personnel and consoles to maintain an unobstructed view
and (2) elevating the line of sight of personnel (e.g.,
supervisors) who are located farther from the display so
they may see over the heads of personnel located closer to
the display. The line of sight may be elevated by using
raised or inclined floors or by raising the height of the
screen. [Source: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2002]

ƒ 5.2.2.7 Ensure critical information cannot be deleted. Control

of large-screen group display systems shall ensure that critical
information cannot be modified or deleted inadvertently or
arbitrarily. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.2.8 Place display changes in control of users. Changes in the

group display shall be under the control of designated users who
operate according to pre-established procedures, on command of
a person in charge, or both. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.2.9 Separate display. When a user must make changes that are
of interest only to him or her, a separate, remote display shall be
provided. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5-19
 à 5.2.2.10 Character height. The height of letters and numerals
intended to be read should be not less than 16 min of arc, with
20-22 min of visual angle preferred at the typical viewing
distance. [Source: DOD, 1999; ISO, 1992]

ƒ 5.2.2.11 Character height at longest viewing distance. The

height of letters and numerals intended to be read shall not be less
than 10 min of visual angle from the longest anticipated viewing
distance. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5.2.3 Large-screen optical projection displays

à 5.2.3.1 When to use. When ambient light can be properly
controlled, optical projection displays should be used for
applications requiring group presentation, pictorial and
spatial information, past history versus real-time presentation,
synthetically generated pictures, simulation of the external world,
or superimposition of data from more than one source. [Source:
DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.2 When to use rear projection. Rear projection shall be

used where physical obstructions to front projection result in poor
visibility, or where work areas require high ambient illumination
for other activities. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.3 Viewing distance and screen size. The ratio of viewing

distance to screen size (measured diagonally) shall be more than 2:1
and less than 8:1. The optimum ratio is 4:1; the preferred range is
more than 3:1 or less than 6:1. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.4 Viewing angle for groups. The angle off centerline for
viewing a large-screen display shall not be greater than 30° for
groups. The optimum viewing angle is 0°, and the preferred limit
is 20°. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.5 Viewing angle for individuals. The angle off centerline for
viewing a large-screen display shall not be greater than 10° for
individuals. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.6 Image luminance with no film in the projector. The

image luminance with no film in the operating projector shall be not
less than 17 cd/m2 (5 fL), and not more than 70 cd/m2 (20 fL).
[Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.7 Luminance ratio across the screen. The ratio of

maximum to minimum luminance across the screen shall be not
greater than 3:1, with the optimum ratio of maximum to
minimum luminance across the screen of 1:1, and the preferred
limit of 1.5:1. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5-20
ƒ 5.2.3.8 Luminance ratio as a function of viewing location. The
ratio of maximum to minimum luminance as a function of
viewing location shall be not greater than 4:1. The optimum ratio
of maximum to minimum luminance as a function of viewing
location is 1:1, and the preferred limit is 2:1. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.9 Luminance ratio of ambient light to brightest image.

The ratio of ambient light to the brightest part of an image shall
not be greater than 1:10 for black and white images and 2:10 for
images with gray scale or color, while maintaining optimum
image luminance. The optimum ratio of ambient light to the
brightest part of the image is 0:1 and the preferred range is 1:100
to 1:500. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.2.3.10 Average luminance. The optimum image luminance

should be in the range of 27 to 48 cd/m2 (8 to 14 fL), with 35
cd/m2 (10 fL) preferred. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.11 Luminance of screen center at the maximum viewing

angle. The luminance of the screen center at the maximum
viewing angle shall be at least half its maximum luminance when
viewed at 0 degrees. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.2.3.12 Luminance ratio. Under optimal ambient lighting

conditions, the luminance ratio for optically projected displays
should be 500:1. [Source: DOD, 1999]

Definition. Luminance ratio is the ratio of the

luminance of an object to that of its surrounding field or
background. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.13 Minimum luminance ratio for viewing charts and text.

The minimum luminance ratio for viewing charts, printed text,
and other line work shall be 5:1. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.14 Minimum luminance ratio for images with limited

range of detail. The minimum luminance ratio for images that
contain limited shadows and detail with a limited luminance
range, such as animation or photographs, shall be 25:1. [Source:
DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.15 Minimum luminance ratio for images with a full

range. The minimum luminance ratio for images that contain a
full range of colors, or grays in black-and-white photographs,
shall be 100:1. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.2.3.16 Minimize distortion. Distortion of the projected image

shall be minimized by ensuring that the screen is as nearly as
possible perpendicular to the light beam from the projector.
[Source: DOD, 1999]

5-21
 ƒ 5.2.3.17 Facilitate maintenance and servicing. Projectors shall
be designed and mounted so as to facilitate servicing and
maintenance, preferably without requiring the use of a ladder.
[Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.2.3.18 Ease of adjustment. Projectors should allow users to

easily adjust the focus and contrast of the image without requiring
special tools or a ladder. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5.3 Displays for Selected Applications

5.3.1 Stereoscopic and binocular displays
Stereoscopic displays generate the sensation of three dimensions,
height, width and depth, within the human visual system. Three-
dimensional display technology may be "stereoscopic," which
requires that users wear special glasses that provide different
images to the two eyes, or "auto stereoscopic," which does not
require any special viewing aids. There are situations in which
three-dimensional images can enhance user performance or
increase the "naturalness" of the presentation of complex spatial
data. Disadvantages of this display type include limitations in the
field of view, the number of viewers, and the nature of data that
can be displayed. In some cases, large screen displays can provide
a similar immersive experience as the heads-up display. [Source:
Avery & Bowser, 1992; Patrick, Cosgrove, Slavkovic, Rode, Verratti, &
Chiselko, 2000]

ƒ 5.3.1.1 Use only if third dimension is meaningful. Three-

dimensional displays shall be used only if the third dimension
conveys a real benefit to the user, the user population has normal
stereoscopic vision, and the field-of-view is suitable for the
number of viewers intended. [Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992; DOD,
1999]

à 5.3.1.2 Do not slow system performance. The three-dimensional

presentation of information should not slow information display,
degrade image quality, or degrade other aspects of system
performance. [Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

à 5.3.1.3 Avoid interocular crosstalk. There should be no

interocular crosstalk, that is, the left eye should not see the
images intended for the right eye, and vice versa. [Source: Avery &
Bowser, 1992]

à 5.3.1.4 Avoid saturated primary colors. Saturated primary colors

that can produce unwanted depth effects such as
chromostereopsis should be avoided in stereoscopic displays.
[Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

5-22
 Discussion. Saturated primary colors can produce depth
perceptions by themselves, which might interfere with the
stereoscopically produced depth perceptions. Primary
colors for light emitting displays such as CRTs are Red,
Green, and Blue (RGB). [Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

à 5.3.1.5 Adjustable interpupillary distance. Devices with

adjustable interpupillary distances should adjust at minimum
from 50 mm to 74 mm (2 in. to 3 in.). [Source: ISO, 2006]

à 5.3.1.6 Interpupillary distance mismatch. Any mismatch

between user interpupillary distance and the distance specified by
the device should not cause greater than 8.6 arc min
misalignment. [Source: ISO, 2006]

à 5.3.1.7 Vertical alignment of displays. Misalignment of

binocular displays should be less than 8.6 min of arc between the
two displays. [Source: ISO, 2006]

à 5.3.1.8 Size difference between displays. Differences in size

between binocular displays should be less than 2 degrees. [Source:
ISO, 2006]

à 5.3.1.9 Interocular focus difference. Differences in focus

between binocular displays should be less than 0.25 diopters.
[Source: ISO, 2006]

à 5.3.1.10 Temporal asynchrony. Temporal asynchrony between

binocular displays should not exceed 100 ms. [Source: ISO, 2006]

à 5.3.1.11 Temporal modulation for dynamic displays. If

dynamic three-dimensional displays are used, the temporal
modulation of stereopsis should be approximately 1 Hz to ensure
the most accurate perception of stereo motion. [Source: Avery &
Bowser, 1992]

Definition. Stereopsis (also called stereoscopic vision)

is three-dimensional depth perception based on retinal
disparity. As the eyes are slightly separated, each eye
sees a slightly different image, when these images are
fused in the brain. The result is a perception of depth or
stereoscopic vision.

à 5.3.1.12 Separate depth-coded objects. Depth-coded objects

should be separated spatially to eliminate disparity averaging,
crowding, and repulsion. [Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

Definition. Disparity is the computation of depth values

based on the lateral distance between corresponding
picture elements in both image planes of stereovision.

5-23
 à 5.3.1.13 Scale images according to disparity. Image size should
be scaled according to the disparity of the image. [Source: Avery &
Bowser, 1992]

à 5.3.1.14 Provide individual size scaling if critical to task

performance. If accurate size perception is critical to task
performance, size scaling should be done for each observer.
[Source: Avery & Bowser, 1992]

à 5.3.1.15 Co-modulate luminance and stereopsis. Luminance

should be co-modulated with stereopsis. [Source: Avery & Bowser,
1992]

Discussion. Brightness is also a depth cue, with brighter

objects being perceived as nearer. [Source: Avery & Bowser,
1992]

à 5.3.1.16 Focal distance. The focal distance should not be less

than 40 cm with 100 cm preferred. [Source: ISO, 2006]

à 5.31.17 Eye relief. Eye relief (the distance from the physical
surface of the display optics to the pupil of the eye) should be at
least 25 mm. [Source: ISO, 2006]

à 5.3.1.18 Object angular displacement. The angular

displacement of objects viewed through the combining glass
assembly should not be greater than 0.5 mrad (1.7 min) of visual
angle. [Source: ISO, 2006]

5.3.2 Heads-up display

A Heads-Up Display (HUD) is any type of display that presents
data without blocking the user's view. This technique was
pioneered for military aviation and is now used in commercial
aviation, motor vehicle, and other applications. Any
binocular/stereo aspects of HUDs should comply with the
previous section on binocular/stereo displays.

ƒ 5.3.2.1 Compatible with human visual system. HUDs shall be

compatible with the capabilities and limitations of the human
visual system. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.3.2.2 Windshield transmission rate. If a vehicle windshield is

used as a HUD combiner, the total transmission through the
windshield shall be not less than 70% as measured along the line
of sight. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.2.3 Eye box size. The eye box size should not be less than
11.5 cm (4.5 in.) wide 6.5 cm (2.5 in.) high, and 15 cm (6 in.)
deep. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5-24
 ƒ 5.3.2.4 Exit pupil. HUDs shall have a minimum exit pupil (that
area within a collimated beam in which the entire image formed
by an objective lens is capable of being seen) of 72 mm (2.8 in.).
[Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.3.2.5 Legibility. Sufficient contrast shall be provided to ensure

symbol legibility under all expected viewing conditions. [Source:
DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.2.6 Character height. The height for HUD alphanumeric

characters should be not less than 8.1 mrad (28 min) of visual
angle. The height for HUD non-alphanumeric characters should
be not less than 9.9 mrad (34 min) of visual angle. [Source: DOD,
1999]

à 5.3.2.7 Raster lines/symbol height. For head-up raster displays,

alphanumeric characters should not use less than 16 raster
lines/symbol height. Non-alphanumeric characters should use not
less than 20 raster lines/symbol height. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.3.2.8 Adjustable luminance. Symbol luminance shall be

adjustable. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.3.2.9 Symbol line width. The line width of symbols used in

HUDs shall be not less than 0.5 mrad (1.7 min). For most
applications, symbol line width should be 1.0 ± 0.2 mrad (3.4 ±
0.7 min). [Source: DOD, 1999]

5.3.3 See-through displays

à 5.3.3.1 See-through displays. Display imagery on see-through
displays should be visually distinctive from any anticipated
background. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.3.3.2 Symbol brightness. Symbols shall be bright enough to be

legible under all expected ambient lighting conditions. [Source:
DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.3.3.3 Legibility in direct sunlight. When legibility in direct

sunlight or background luminance of 34,000 cd/m2 (10,000
footlamberts) or greater is required, symbol brightness shall be
not less than 5000 cd/m2 (15,000 footlamberts). [Source: DOD,
1999]

à 5.3.3.4 Symbol brightness in high ambient. For most high

ambient light applications, symbol brightness should be 6,900 -
10,300 cd/m2 (2,000-3,000 footlamberts). [Source: DOD, 1999]

5.3.4 Helmet-mounted displays

à 5.3.4.1 Adjustable. All HMDs should be easily adjustable to fit
the individual user’s head. [Source: Neale, 1998]

5-25
à 5.3.4.2 Controls. All HMDs should have controls placed so that
they are easy to use and reach while wearing the device (without
requiring the user to remove the device). [Source: Neale, 1998]

à 5.3.4.3 Weight distribution. Weight distribution of helmet-

mounted items should be balanced to avoid or minimize neck
strain, fatigue, and helmet movement relative to the operator’s
head. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.4.4 Weight transfer. The number of weight transfer points

and the size and location of those points should be such that they
minimize user discomfort. [Source: Neale, 1998]

à 5.3.4.5 External attachments. Any required external

attachments should not restrict operator head or shoulder motion.
[Source: Rash, Ledford, & Mora, 1996]

à 5.3.4.6 Accuracy of head tracking system for HMDs. Head

tracking systems used for HMDs should be able to resolve
changes in head position of at least 1.5 mm. [Source: Rash et al.,
1996]

à 5.3.4.7 Accuracy in intended environment. Head tracking

systems used for HMDs should be accurate in the intended
environment (in proximity of systems and equipment normal to
operations). [Source: Rash et al., 1996]

Discussion. Some head tracking equipment can be

affected by the presence of computers or monitors. It is
important to ensure the accuracy of the system in the
presence of equipment that will be present in the
operational environment.

ƒ 5.3.4.8 Minimize time lag. Time lags between visually coupled

systems and the display shall be minimized so as not to
negatively impact task performance or cause motion sickness.
[Source: Rash et al., 1996]

à 5.3.4.9 Attention distraction. HMDs should minimize attention

distraction and user cognitive load demand by providing only
task-oriented, essential, integrated information with minimum
memory requirements. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.4.10 Salient cues. HMDs should provide only salient cueing

(e.g., directing attention to critical information). [Source: DOD,
1999]

à 5.3.4.11 Standardized graphics. All information presented

graphically (e.g., positional, topographic, and spatial information)
should use standardized symbols. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5-26
 à 5.3.4.12 Symbol location. All displayed symbols should be
presented within the central 25-degree area of the HMD to
minimize required eye movements. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.4.13 Gray shades. Monochromatic HMDs should provide at

least six shades of gray for alphanumeric and simple graphic
information and nine shades of gray for complex graphic or
sensor data. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.4.14 Field of view. The field of view should provide

acceptable visual search performance, object recognition, and
spatial orientation for the task. [Source: DOD, 1999]

ƒ 5.3.4.15 Unobstructed view of displays and controls. Operators

shall have an unrestricted view of all displays and controls.
[Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.4.16 Visual orientation. All required mission symbology

should be in the operator’s instantaneous field of view, regardless
of head position. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.3.4.17 Mode selection. As applicable, a user-selectable

optional display mode should be provided to reduce display
clutter. [Source: DOD, 1999]

5.4 Special Conditions

5.4.1 Vibration
ƒ 5.4.1.1 Do not allow vibration to interfere with tasks.
Vibration of visual displays shall not hinder users in the
performance of their tasks. [Source: DOD, 1999]

à 5.4.1.2 Vibration. Displays that must be read during projected

periods of high vibration should be designed accordingly. [Source:
NASA, 1995]

à 5.4.1.3 Character size during vibration. Display characters that

must be read during projected periods of vibration should be
sufficiently large to be perceived even when blurred. [Source:
NASA, 1995]

à 5.4.1.4 Sufficient illumination for vibration. Sufficient

illumination should be used to avoid scotopic vision, which
results in a lower critical flicker fusion frequency during periods
of vibration. [Source: NASA, 1995]

à 5.4.1.5 Avoid excessive vibration. Displays should be stabilized

to avoid vibrating at frequencies greater than 5 Hz. [Source ISO,
2006]

5-27
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 Glossary

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) - A vacuum tube of a computer monitor in which phosphors coat the
inner surface. When excited with an electron beam, these phosphors glow and produce light.

Central visual field - The central 30° of the visual field, which is the area of highest acuity.

Color fringes - The pixels along the border of an object that contain a combination of the
selection and background colors.

Color temperature - The display’s ability to reproduce colors accurately as brightness levels
change. Color temperature is a term used to describe the color of light from its source. Color
temperature is measured in degrees Kelvin and is sometimes referred to as white balance.

Contrast ratio - The luminance of the foreground divided by the luminance of the background.
The greater the contrast, the sharper the image will be.

CRT - See Cathode Ray Tube.

Diffuse glare - A type of glare caused by the general ambient illuminance, which effectively
reduces the display contrast without producing significant specular reflection.

Disparity - The computation of difference of depth values based on the lateral distance between
corresponding picture elements in both image planes of stereovision.

Eye relief - The distance from the physical surface of the display optics to the pupil of the eye.

Flicker - The appearance of flashing that occurs in a computer display when the display is not
refreshed frequently enough, causing the phosphor to begin to decay prior to being refreshed.

Focal vision - The central 30° of the visual field. It is the area that people use to look at objects
in the world, moving their eyes as needed to bring images of the object on to the fovea, which is
the area of highest acuity.

Footcandle - A unit of measure of the intensity of light falling on a surface, which is equal to
one lumen per square foot.

Footlambert (fl) - A unit to measure luminance, which is equal to 1/π candela per square foot. It
is a measure that has been corrected for the visual system’s differential sensitivity to different
wavelengths, giving an approximation to perceived brightness.

Fovea - The small central region of the retina that exhibits the greatest sensitivity to detail and
color and comprises the area of most acute vision.

Head-Mounted Display (HMD) - A helmet-shaped display device that is worn on the head to
have video information directly displayed in front of the eyes.

Heads Up Display (HUD) - Any type of display that presents data without blocking the user's
view of the outside world.

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Interlaced - A display that produces a video image by displaying alternate scan lines.

Interocular crosstalk - When the left eye can see the images intended for the right eye, and vice
versa.

Jitter - A departure from geometric stability, which occurs when pixels in displayed objects
move instead of remaining in a fixed position.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) - a type of flat-panel display that has two polarized layers on
top of each other.

LCD - See liquid crystal display.

Legibility - The extent to which the user can decipher or read alphanumeric characters or text.

Luminance - The physical measure of the amount of light emitted by or reflected in a given
direction from the display. Luminance is expressed in candela per meter squared or
footlamberts.

Luminance ratio - The luminance of the foreground divided by the luminance of the
background. Luminance ratio indicates how much brighter a pure white output would be than a
pure black output. The greater the contrast, the sharper the image will be. Luminance ratio can
also be referred to as contrast ratio.

Moiré patterns - An undesired pattern on displays that appears as periodic intensity variations
over the screen image.

Motion artifacts - The after images made up of the previously drawn object that have not yet
decayed enough to disappear that appear to follow a moving display object. They often look like
the tail of a comet following the object in motion.

Non-interlaced - A display that produces a video image by displaying all lines in a frame in one
pass from top to bottom before the next frame appears.

Phosphor - A luminescent substance used to coat the inside of a CRT, which emits visible light
when illuminated by electrons within an evacuated glass tube.

Pixels - picture elements arranged in horizontal rows and vertical columns, which create the
picture element.

Polarity - The relationship between the brightness of the background and an image. A bright
image on a dark background is negative polarity and a dark image on a bright background is
positive polarity.

Primary colors - Primary colors for light emitting displays such as CRTs are Red, Green, and
Blue (RGB).

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Refresh rate - The rate (in cycles per second or Hz) at which the displayed contents of a
computer screen are regenerated.

Resolution - The number of pixel elements per square inch. Each display is associated with a
specific physical display resolution. The display resolution signifies the number of dots (pixels)
on the entire screen. The higher the resolution, the more dots or pixels on the display device.
Common resolutions include the following:
• VGA (video graphics array) = 640 x 480
• SVGA (super video graphics array) = 800 x 600
• XGA (extended graphics array) = 1024 x 768
• WXGA (wide extended graphics array) = 1280 x 800
• SXGA (super extended graphics array) = 1400 x 1050
• UXGA (ultra extended graphics array) = 1600 x 1200
• WSXGA (wide super extended graphics array) = 1680 x 1050
• WUXGA (wide ultra extended graphics array) = 1920 x 1200

Response time - an attribute that applies to LCD monitors. It is defined as the time required for
a liquid crystal cell to go from active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again
measured in milliseconds (ms). Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore less visible
image artifacts.

Specular glare - The appearance of unwanted images (reflections) on the display surface.

Stereopsis (also called stereoscopic vision) - Three-dimensional depth perception based on

retinal disparity. As the eyes are slightly separated, each eye sees a slightly different image
when these images are fused in the brain. The result is a perception of depth or stereoscopic
vision.

Stereoscopic display - A method used to generate the sensation of three dimensions within the
human visual system. Three-dimensional display technology may be "stereoscopic," which
requires that users wear special glasses that provide different images to the two eyes, or "auto
stereoscopic," which does not require any special viewing aids.

Stereoscopic vision - See Stereopsis.

Stroke width - The thickness of the lines used to make up the number or letter.

Viewing angle - The angle off the centerline from which a display will be viewed.

Visual angle - The angle subtended by objects measured in minutes of arc. It represents an
apparent size of an object based on the relationship between an object's distance from the viewer
and its size (perpendicular to the viewer's line of sight). For example, if an object that is size h is
at a distance d from the retina, the visual angle subtended x is: x = arctan (h/d).

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