CHAPTER IV

METHODS OF APPLYING IRRIGATION WATER

The methodology for obtaining data necessary to carry out the preparations for planning
and selecting an irrigation method is discussed in this section. The acquisition and evaluation of
specific information to establish the requirements for planning and selecting an irrigation method
may require the services of different disciplines such as agronomists, horticulturists, soil
scientists, as well as social scientists, environmentalists and economists. They are in addition to
the agricultural or irrigation engineer.

The first step is to identify the parameters or factors which are needed to determine the
viable irrigation methods for a given farm. The planning process for selecting an irrigation
method requires an inventory of the resources available to the farmer. The evaluation of these
resources is necessary to identify the production potentials and the physical and operational
constraints which affect the selection of viable alternative irrigation method. The analysis and
comparison of these alternatives provide a basis for selecting the farm irrigation system.

Parameters for planning and selecting an irrigation method :

The physical resources of water supply, soils, topography and climate affects the
planning and selection. These resources along with the crops to be grown, must be evaluated in
conjunction with other resources such as available labor and energy, marketing potentials,
economic conditions, the farmers’ preferences and their financial status are all needed to
determine the viable irrigation method for the farm. After assessing the applicable irrigation
method/s for the farm, alternative method/s can be designed and analyzed and the most
appropriate system or method selected.

 Water supply :

The characteristic of water supply can have a significant effect on the selection of the
irrigation method. Factors like location, available quantity, time distribution of the quantity,
and the quality of the water supply can affect the considerations for defining and evaluating
the applicable irrigation method.

 Soils

Soils are one of the basic input resources for agricultural production. The selection of
irrigation method is influemced by such soil factors as texture, structure, depth, salinity,
infiltration or intake rate, and the water holding capacity. The factors of topography, and soil
erodibility can also influence the selection and design of irrigation method. Soil survey and
land classification maps helps in gathering the above-named data. The maps also help in
assessing the production capabilities and special management requirements when planning
irrigation activities.
 Climate-crop system interaction

The crops to be grown on any farm may be selected from those that are adaptable to the
water supply, soils, and the climatic conditions. The crops selected must be marketable with
the prospect of an attractive economic return. The array of crops which are adaptable to a
given farm may be obtained in part from list of crops successfully grown in the area. If the
farmer desires to fully evaluate the irrigated cropping potentials – agronomic, horticultural,
and economic assistance may be required. When planning and evaluating alternative
irrigation method, an understanding of the cultural practices used to grow each potential crop
is particularly important. The selected irrigation method must be applicable to the crops
grown, as well as the physical constraints of the farm.

 Capital and labor

The availability of capital for development of an irrigated farm and labor for operating the
system exerts a major influence on the selection of the proposed irrigation method.

 Energy

Energy is required for pumping and for operating the mechanized facilities of many irrigation
systems. The energy used for pumping varies with static lift – the pressure supplied to
operate gated pipe, sprinklers and emitters , friction losses in the pipelines, and the efficiency
of the pump and the motor. All of these must be carefully evaluated when designing and
selecting an irrigation method. Efficient energy use requires correct scheduling of the time
and amount of irrigation applications and maintaining an efficiently operating pump and
power unit.

 Economic financial feasibility

Farm irrigation development is occurring from less than a hectare of land to areas of several
thousand hectares. The complexity of the economic and financial analyses required increases
with the size of the area being developed, the type of cropping system which is to be applied
and the amount of funds involved.

Farm Irrigation Systems

Farm irrigation systems can be classified into irrigation methods by the manner in which
the water is applied to the soil. A common classification used is to divide the systems into (a)
surface irrigation methods where small open channels or overland flow is used to distribute the
water over a cropped field, (b) sprinkler irrigation methods where water is distributed aerially to
the cropped field, and (c) trickle irrigation methods where small point applicators are used to
apply water. A fourth method, subsurface irrigation is accomplished by controlling the level of
the water table or by applicators which apply the water below the soil surface which results in
the water being distributed through the soil capillary forces.

A. Surface Irrigation

Surface irrigation systems convey water from the source to the fields in lined or unlined open
channels and/or low-head pipelines. Basins, borders and furrows are the primary methods of
applying water. A smaller investment is normally required for surface systems than for sprinkler
and trickle systems, except possibly when extensive land smoothing is needed. Although
traditionally regarded as labor intensive, concepts and equipment for automating surface
irrigation and reducing labor requirements are now available. Surface irrigation systems are best
suited to soils with low to moderate infiltration capacities and lands with relatively uniform
terrain and slopes less than 2-3%.

The topics that follow pertain to surface irrigation processes, systems, and design with the
primary objective to

1. become familiar with basins, border, and furrow irrigation;

2. describe surface irrigation processes;
3. become familiar with open channel and low-head pipeline delivery systems;
4. design lined and unlined open channels;
5. evaluate the effectiveness of surface irrigations;
6. perform land smoothing calculations;
7. be introduced to cablegation and surge flow irrigation;
8. be introduced to equipment and concepts for automating surface irrigation systems;
9. perform field tests to obtain information for designing basin, border, and furrow systems;
10. be introduced to mathematical modeling of surface irrigation; and
11. design basin, border, and furrow systems with constant stream size.

Surface Irrigation Methods

Primary methods of surface irrigation:

Basin irrigation

In basin irrigation, the field to be irrigated is divided into units surrounded by small levees or
dikes. Gated outlets, siphon tubes, spiles and hydrants conduct water from delivery channels or
pipelines into each basin.

Basins may either be level or graded. In level basins, water is introduced into the basin as
rapidly as possible and then held until it infiltrates or is drained away. High application
efficiencies are possible primarily because runoff losses are minimized.
Graded basins are constructed with two levees parallel and two perpendicular to field contours.
Water enters graded basin along the upper contour and flows to the lower contour until the
irrigation is complete. Water is then removed with surface drains located along the low contour
levee. Graded basins are sometimes tiered so that water drained from upper basins is used to
irrigate the lower basins. For paddy rice, water is usually circulated through basins throughout
most of the irrigation season. Graded basin irrigation is sometimes called contour levee
irrigation.

Basin irrigation is best suited to soils of moderate to low infiltration capacities and land with
smooth, gentle slopes. Basins size must be reduced to successfully irrigate soils with moderately
high infiltration capacities.

The principal disadvantage of basin irrigation is that levees interfere with the movement of farm
equipment. The presence of levees and ditches can also reduce the area available for crop
production.

Border irrigation

Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth ridges, called borders, to guide a sheet of flowing
water across a field. The area between two borders is the border strip. These strips have no
cross slope and are either level or graded from inflow to outflow end. Level borders are
normally diked at the downstream end to prevent runoff. This is not recommended for crops
that are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem. The operation of a machinery can be a
problem as in basins.
Furrow irrigation

Furrow irrigation is accomplished by running water in small channels (furrows) that are
constructed with or across the slope of the field. Water infiltrates from the bottom and sides of
furrows moving laterally and downward to wet the soil and to move soluble salts, fertilizers and
herbicides carried with the water.
Water is diverted into furrows from open ditches or pipes. Two of the most common methods of
introducing water into furrows from open ditches are siphon tubes and forbays with spiles.
Portable gated pipes and single or multiple outlet risers are two popular ways of discharging
water from low pressure underground pipe.
Furrows may be classified as level, contour or graded furrows. Furrows that are level lengthwise
are level furrows. A dike is usually constructed at the downstream end of level furrows to pond
water in the furrow and minimize runoff from the furrow. This method is suited to fine-
textured , very slowly permeable soils on relatively flat lands.

Contour furrows are curved to fit the topography of the land. Contour furrows have a gentle
slope along their length. Fields of slopes of up to 15% can be irrigated with contour furrows.

Graded furrows are usually straight channels constructed down the prevailing land slope (grade).
Land smoothing is usually required for acceptable water application efficiency and uniformity.
Excessive erosion, low efficiency and/or poor uniformity can result when slopes exceed 2%
and/or in coarse-textured soils.
Furrows are particularly suitable for irrigating crops that are subject to injury if water covers the
crown or the stem of the plants. A variation of the furrow method is the use of small rills, or
corrugations, for irrigating closed-spaced crops.

The labor required is usually greater for furrows than for any other surface irrigation method,
except possibly irrigation with small basins.

Other methods:

Water spreading

Water spreading involves turning a stream of water onto a relatively flat field and allowing the
water to spread naturally. This normally is an inefficient method providing little or no control of
water distribution over the field. Water spreading is sometimes employed in low-lying areas
with a stream or small river where water can be diverted during periods of high water. This
practice allows use of short term, excess supplies of water that would otherwise be lost.

Contour ditch irrigation

In this system, water is released onto the field to be irrigated from a series of slightly sloping
ditches spaced 25 – 200 m across the field contours. Water is released onto the land between
ditches using large siphon tubes through openings in the down slope ditch bank or over down
slope ditch banks constructed lower than upslope banks. In practice, application uniformity is
reduced as water is channeled by depressions in the land surface.
Delivery Systems for Surface Irrigated Farms

Delivery systems for surface irrigated farms convey water from the farm water source to the
fields in open canals and/or pipelines. Delivery systems may include structures for measuring
and regulating flow, controlling head and erosion, and diverting water into basins, borders, and
furrows. The capacity of a systems must be sufficient to deliver the right amount of water to any
point in the field whenever it is needed.

Open channel delivery systems

Lined canals and unlined ditches are widely utilized for on-farm conveyance of irrigation water.
Where land has been grade to a uniform plane, canals, and ditches are normally placed in a
straight line across the upper edge of the field being irrigated. On undulating terrain, they follow
the general contour of the field to obtain a uniform channel slope.

Unlined ditches

Unlined ditches are popular because of their low capital cost and ease of construction. They are
best suited for relatively flat lands with cohesive soils with low infiltration capacities. On steep
lands or unstable soils, ditch erosion can be serious problem. In porous, high infiltration capacity
soils, large amounts of water may seep through the bottom and sides of unlined ditches to create
or intensify drainage problems and to reduce the conveyance efficiency.

Weed control is essential for efficient unlined ditch operation. Weeds growing along ditch banks
reduce the carrying capacity of the ditches and are source of seeds which may infest irrigated
fields.

Lined canals
Linings reduce seepage through the bed and walls of canals, and thus reduce the potential for
drainage problems. Smooth surface linings reduce friction losses and increase the carrying
capacity of the canal. Canals have steeper slopes when they are lined with concrete or asphalt
because they are more resistant to erosion. Linings reduce water losses caused by burrowing
animals particularly when the canals are placed on elevated fills. Maintenance costs, are
generally less for lined canals.

Open channel design

Open canal design involves determining the amount of water the canal must convey (the
capacity), the flow velocity, and the canal slope, shape, and cross-sectional dimensions.

Channel capacity:

The following equation can be used to estimate the canal capacity:

( DDIR )( A )
Q=
( HPD ) ( Ei )

Q = canal capacity (L3/T)

DDIR = design daily irrigation requirement (L/T)
A = area to be irrigated (L2)
HPD = hours per day the water is delivered
Ei = irrigation efficiency including conveyance losses

Table 15: Typical delivery system conveyance efficiencies.

Waterway Efficiency (%)
Unlined canals 70-80
Lined canals 80-85
Unlined large laterals 80-85
Lined large laterals & unlined small laterals 85-90
Small lined laterals 90
Pipelines 100

Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow in a canal or ditch should be low enough to prevent
erosion of the canal bed and sides, but high enough to prevent the deposition of suspended
substances. A flow velocity in excess of 0.6 m/s will normally minimize deposition. The
maximum velocity that does not cause excessive erosion depends on the erodibility of the soil or
lining material. Local experience is often the most reliable way of determining the maximum
velocities for particular soils. The maximum allowable velocities for lined canals and unlined
ditches are listed in the table below for direct reference where local experience is not available.

Channel shape: The most efficient hydraulically efficient cross-sectional shape for an open
channel is a semi-circle. Since the sides of a semi-circle are nearly vertical, this shape is not
practical for unlined ditches and complicates the construction of lined canals. In general, the use
of semi-circular cross-sections are limited to pre-cast concrete and pre-shaped metal or plastic
flumes. The most efficient trapezoidal section is half the hexagon but the side slopes of 0.58
(horizontal) to 1.0 (vertical) are too steep for most channels. Recommended side slopes for
several types of lined canals and unlined canals are shown in Table 17. as a recommendation,
the bottom width of lined trapezoidal channels be half to equal the depth of flow.

Table 16: Limiting velocities for essentially straight canals after aging.
Velocity
Material Clear water Water transporting
m/s ft/s Colloidal (m/s) Silts (ft/s)
Fine sand, colloidal 0.46 1.50 0.76 2.50
Sandy loam, non-colloidal 0.53 1.75 0.76 2.50
Silt loam, non-colloidal 0.61 2.00 0.91 3.00
Alluvial silts, non-colloidal 0.61 2.00 1.07 3.50
Ordinary firm loam 0.76 2.50 1.07 3.50
Volcanic ash 0.76 2.50 1.07 3.50
Stiff clay, very colloidal 1.14 3.75 1.52 5.00
Alluvial silts, colloidal 1.14 3.75 1.52 5.00
Shales and hardpans 1.83 6.00 1.83 6.00
Fine gravel 0.76 2.50 1.52 5.00
Graded loam to cobbles when non- 1.14 3.75 1.52 5.00
colloidal
Graded silts to cobbles, when 1.22 4.00 1.68 5.50
colloidal
Coarse gravel, non-colloidal 1.22 4.00 1.83 6.00
Cobbles and shingles 1.52 5.00 1.68 5.50

Table 17 : Side slope ratios (H:V) for unlined open ditches.

Shallow ditches Deep ditches
Soil
(with depths up to 1.2 m) (with depths over 1.2 m)
Peat and muck Vertical 0.25:1
Stiff (heavy) clay 0.5:1 1:1
Clay or silt loam 1:1 1.5:1
Sandy loam 1.5:1 2:1
Loose sandy 2:1 3:1

Channel dimensions: Once the capacity, lining material, slope and the shape of the canal are
known, the channel dimensions can be determined. The Manning equation and the continuity
equation are used to relate flow velocity, capacity and channel slope, shape, and cross section
dimensions.
 K 2/3 1/2
V= R S
Manning equation: n

Continuity equation: Q= AV

where V = flow velocity

n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = channel slope
A = cross-sectional area of channel perpendicular to flow
Q = capacity of the channel
K = unit constant (1.0 if V = m/s; R = m; 1.49 if V = ft/s; R = ft)

Table 18. Average values of the Manning roughness coefficient for various boundary materials.
Boundary material Manning, n
Planed wood 0.012
Unplanned wood 0.013
Finished concrete 0.012
Unfinished concrete 0.014
Cast iron 0.015
Brick 0.016
Riveted steel 0.018
Corrugated metal 0.022
Rubble 0.025
Earth 0.025
Earth, with stones or weeds 0.035
Gravel 0.029

T=t

D Rectangular cross-section
d

b
 T
t

Z = e/d
D
d

b e

Trapezoidal cross-section
 T
t

D Z = e/d
d

Triangular cross-section.

t
Parabolic cross-
section
D d

Figure . Channel cross-sections and notations.

Table 19. Formulas for computing the parameters of the different cross-sections.
Cross-section Parameter
A=bd +Zd 2
P=b+2 d √ Z 2 +1
bd + Zd 2
Trapezoid R=
b+ 2 d √ Z 2 +1
t=b+ 2dZ
T =b+ 2 DZ
A = bd
Rectangle P = b + 2d
R = bd/(b+2d)
T=t=b
Triangle A=Zd 2
P=2 d √ Z 2 +1
 Zd 2
R=
2 d √ Z 2 +1
Dt
t =2 dZ ; T=
d
Cross-section Parameter
2
A  td
3
8 d2
P=t +
3t
Parabola t2 d
R=
1 .5 t +4 d 2

( )
1
A D
t= ; T=t 2
0 .67 d d

To design for the most efficient cross-section, the following approximations could be used:

d = 1.5R (for parabolic cross-sections)

d = 2R (for triangular cross-sections)

b = 2d tan /2 (for trapezoidal cross-sections)

Inlet structures

Canal ditch inlets are structures that direct the flow of supply pipes from turnouts and pumps into
an open channel (division boxes). Flow regulation and debris removal are normally done
upstream of the inlet structure. Inlet structures often include weirs, orifices or flow meters for
flow measurements.

Conveyance structures

Conveyance structures are needed where flows must be carried under or across draws
(topographic depressions), roads, railways, other courses or other permanent obstructions.
Conveyance structures in addition to the canal itself, include inverted siphons, culverts, flumes
and elevated ditches.

Inverted siphons: These are used to convey water under permanent structures and topographic
depressions. They consist of relatively short reinforced concrete inlet and outlet sections
connected by comparatively long barrels. The inlet and outlet sections are transitions between
the canal and the circular barrel of the siphon. The barrels are usually constructed of either
precast concrete pipe, cast in place monolithic concrete, or steel pipe.
Culverts: Culverts are installed to carry canal flows under roads, railways, or other canals.
Cross-sections may be rectangular, square, or circular. Barrels may be single or multiple units.
Flumes: Flumes are artificial troughs built on or above ground level to carry water along routes
where other types of conveyance would be more expensive. Flumes usually have open
rectangular or semicircular cross-sections and commonly built with timber, wood staves, sheet
metal or concrete.
Elevated canals and ditches: Elevated ditches/canals are open channels built on compacted
earth fill to convey water across shallow depressions. They are sometimes less costly than
flumes, siphons, and pipelines.

Control structures

Control structures are included in open canal/ditch delivery systems to regulate velocity, head,
and the quantity of water released into distribution laterals, basins, borders, and furrows. The
number and types of structures depend on the type of canal or ditch, the slope, and the layout of
the irrigation system.

Division boxes: Division boxes direct or divide flow from a supply pipe or channel between two
or more distribution laterals.

Drops: Drop structures are needed in canals and ditches to convey water down steep slopes
without erosive velocities. This is accomplished by subdividing the slope into several reaches
with relatively flat slopes and constructing a drop structure at the end of each reach to lower
water abruptly into the next reach.

Chutes: Chutes are lined, high-velocity open channels. They have an inlet, a steep-sloped
section of lined canal where the elevation change occurs, a stilling pool or other energy
dissipation device, and an outlet section. Chutes can be used on short, steep channel reaches and
where drop structures would be so close together that a lined canal section is more practical.
Chutes are expensive and are designed individually.
Relifts: Relifts are used when the water supply is not high enough to provide water to all areas
of the farm. Relifts include a pump for lifting water from a canal or ditch to a higher elevation
channel.

Checks: Checks are permanent or portable structures placed in canals or ditches to control the
upstream water level. They are used when the water level in the canals or ditches must be raised
above the normal depth of flow to provide head for operating outlets. There may or may not be
flow past a check. When there is no flow past them, checks act as dams that confine water
released to the area along the canal or ditch being irrigated.
Check-drops: A check-drop structure functions as both a check and a drop. Flashboard
mounted in a headwall provide upstream head control, while an abrupt drop in a channel bottom
elevation from the upstream to the downstream sides of the flashboards allows a non-erosive
velocity to be maintained in the channel.

Outlets

Outlets are devices for releasing the desired flow of water into distribution laterals, basins,
borders, and furrows. They should be easy to operate and should protect from erosion the canal
or ditch and the surface of the field at the point of release. Outlets from open channels include
turnouts, siphon tubes, and spiles (wooden piles).

Turnouts: Turnouts are constructed in the banks of farm canals and ditches to provide and
control flow to basins, borders, and distribution laterals. They usually have removable
flashboards or a circular or a rectangular slide gate to regulate flow.
Siphon tubes: Siphon tubes are curved aluminum or plastic pipes that are laid over the bank of
delivery canals and ditches. Water flows into the tube , is pulled (siphoned) over the bank of the
delivery channel, and delivered into borders and furrows when there is sufficient operating head
and the tube is properly positioned and full of water (primed).
Low head pipelines

Water is often conveyed from the water source and distributed to basins, borders, and furrows in
low-head pipelines. These pipelines essentially eliminate evaporation, seepage losses, can be
laid on non-uniform grades and allow water to be conveyed uphill against the land slope. They
allow the area that would otherwise be occupied by open ditches/canals to be planted to crops.
They also reduce maintenance requirements, make water control easier, and eliminate ditch bank
weed problems.

Inlets: Inlets are structures needed to carry water from the water source into low-head pipelines.
Inlets normally include gates or valves for on/off service.

Debris racks and screens: Trash carried by irrigation water that plugs siphon tubes and spiles as
well as pipe gates and valves is removed by placing debris racks on the upstream side of the
gravity inlets. These racks also prevent animals from low-head pipelines.

Sand traps: A sand trap is a settling basin for removing sand from irrigation water. They are
incorporated into pump stands and gravity inlets by placing pipeline inverts some distance above
the bottom of the inlet structure.

Standpipes: A standpipe is a vertical pipe or box extending above ground from a buried
pipeline. They provide surge protection, air release, flow regulation, and head control in buried
low-head pipelines. The main types are gate stands, overflow stands, and float-valve stands.

Outlets: Outlets are devices that release water from low-head pipelines into basins, borders, and
furrows.
 Surface Irrigation Process

Surface irrigation is accomplished by causing water to flow over the land surface. Typically,
water is diverted into the field from a supply ditch or pipe and flows behind a distinct wetting
front over the soil surface. As flow occurs, some water enters (infiltrates) the soil. Under
normal conditions, flow continues until the advancing wetting front reaches the opposite end of
the field. Water then begins either to leave the field as surface runoff or to be stored in the
surface if runoff is prevented by diking the downstream end of the field. Normally, water
continues to be diverted into the field until the irrigation requirement has been supplied. After
inflow ends, flow across the field usually continues, but the depth of flow decreases, beginning
at the upstream end of the field. When the depth of flow at the upstream end becomes zero, a
recession or drying front is formed. This recession front moves downstream until it reaches the
downstream end of the field or it meets a similar end moving upstream from the downstream end
of the field. When no water remains on the surface, the irrigation is complete.

Advance Phase: The advance phase begins when water is turned into the field and ends when
water reaches the downstream ends of the field. During advance, a sharply defined water front
with water on the inflow side of the front and dry field on the other side moves across the field.

recession

depletion

storage

advance

Irrigation begins
Distance across field

Figure 3: The complete irrigation process.

The rate of advance decreases with time as the wetted area behind the water front increases.
Typical relationships between the distance that the water has advanced from the upstream end of
a “typical” field is shown if Fig. 4. The advance represented by curve A is slower than that
represented by curve B. This occurs because either

1. the inflow rate to the field (the stream size) is lower,

 2. the field slope is flatter,
3. the intake (infiltration) rate of the soil is higher, and/or
4. the hydraulic roughness is greater for curve A than for curve B.

Storage Phase: The storage phase begins when the advance phase ends. It occurs only if inflow
to the field continues after water has advanced to the downstream end of the field . The storage
phase ends when inflow ends.

Depletion Phase: The depletion phase begins when the storage phase ends (i.e. when inflow
ends) and ends when the depth of flow at the inflow end of the field becomes zero.

Recession Phase: Recession begins when the depletion phase ends. A “drying” front moves
from the inflow to the downstream end of the field. Recession continues until either the front
reaches the end of the field or it encounters a receding front moving toward the inflow end of the
field. The latter condition seldom occurs.

The Effectiveness of Surface Irrigations

The effectiveness of irrigation qualitatively describes the application efficiency, uniformity and
adequacy of irrigation. The concept of irrigation effectiveness is extremely useful in evaluating
designs and management strategies.

Recession curve

Infiltration A
opportunity time
Time
B

Distance across field

Fig. 4 : Advanced curves A & B, a recession curve and the infiltration
opportunity time for surface irrigation

Uniformity
The uniformity of application describes how evenly an irrigation system distributes water over a
field. Perfect uniformity means that the entire field receives an equal depth of water. Less than
perfect uniformity implies that some areas of the field receive more water than the other areas.

In order for the depth of infiltration to be identical across a field, and for uniformities to be high,
infiltration opportunity time must be the same throughout the field. The infiltration opportunity
time is the time interval during which water is available to enter the soil between the time it
arrives at a point during the advance phase and departs during recession. In Fig. 4, high
uniformities are possible only when the vertical distance is constant across the field. This
normally is facilitated by a “flat” advance curve. Thus, highest uniformities can be expected on
fields with steep slopes, low hydraulic roughness, low infiltration capacity soils, and/or when
large stream sizes are used.

The uniformity of application can be evaluated using the Christiansen Uniformity Coefficient
(Cu). The following illustrates the procedure for evaluating Cu along an irrigation furrow:

Given:

Station from head of furrow Depth of infiltration at each station (in.)

1 4.00
2 3.80
3 3.65
4 3.60
5 3.50
6 3.40
Required: Uniformity of irrigation, Cu:

Solution:

X=( 4.00+3.80+3.65+3.60+3.50+3.40 ) /6=3.66 in

∑|d|=|4.00−3.66|+|3.80−3.66|+|3.65−3.66|+|3.60−3.66|+|3.50−3.66|+|3.40−3.66|=0.97
(
C u= 1 . 0−
0 .97
)
6 ( 3 .66 )
=95 . 6 %

Application efficiency

The application efficiency is defined as the amount of water that is beneficially used by the crop
divided by the total amount of water applied. When leaching is neglected, beneficial use equals
the amount of water stored in the root zone:
 RZ
E a= 100 ( when L=0)
∇
D ( θ FC−θi )
RZ= =∇−DP−RO
100
Qt
∇=
A

where Ea = efficiency of application

RZ = amount of water stored in the root zone
V = total water applied
D = depth of root zone
FC & i = volumetric moisture contents at field capacity and prior to irrigation
Qbar = average stream size during irrigation
T= duration of irrigation
DP = deep percolation
RO = runoff
A = area irrigated

Adequacy of irrigation

Runoff and deep percolation can be controlled and application efficiency maximized by not
filling the soil to field capacity. This practice may cause at least a portion of the field to be
inadequately irrigated. The adequacy of irrigation is the percent of the field receiving sufficient
water to maintain the quantity and quality of crop production at a “profitable” level.

The following problem illustrates the effectiveness of surface irrigation:

Given:
 advance data in column 1 & 2 of the given table
 cumulative infiltration graph
 runoff
efficiency

Ea
Amount
of DP & Deep percolation
RO

Dimensionless advance time(Ta/Ti)

Fig. 5: RO, DP, and Ea for a typical surface irrigated soil. Ta is the time to advance the
end of the field; Ti is the time to infiltrate the desired depth of application.

 furrow spacing = 3.5’

 stream size = 6 gpm
 furrow length = 513 ‘
 water enters the furrow for 1012 min.
 4 in. of water is required to fill the root zone to field capacity
 assume that recession is instantaneous when inflow to the furrow ends

Required:
a. Ea
b. Es
c. Cu

Solution:

 compute the infiltration opportunity time and depth of infiltration along the furrow
 compute average depth of infiltration
 compute depth of deep percolation
 compute depth of application
 compute depth of runoff
 compute depth stored in the root zone
 compute Ea
 compute Es
 compute Cu
 100

Cumulative
infiltration
depth
10

Time (minutes)
0.1

1 10 100 1000 10000

1. compute Infiltration Opportunity Time (IOT)

Dist. along Minutes of Advance time IOT (min) Inches infiltrated

furrow (ft) application (min)
(a) (b) (c) (b-c)
0 1012 0 1012 4.88
100 1012 23 990 4.84
200 1012 83 929 4.73
300 1012 180 832 4.53
400 1012 314 698 4.24
500 1012 482 530 3.82
513 1012 506 506 3.75

2. average depth of infiltration

D=
(
4 . 88+4 .84
2 )
( 100 ) +(4 . 84+4 .73
2 )
(100 )+ .. .+ (
3 . 82+3. 75
2 )( 13 )
= 4 .52 in.
513

3. depth of deep percolation

DP=D − depth of deep percolation = 4.52−4.0=0.52 in .

 4. depth of application

Da =
( 6 gpm )( 1012 min ) 12 in
( 513 ft ) ( 3 .5 ft ) ft ( )(
1 ft 3
7 . 48 gal )
= 5 . 43 in.

5. depth of runoff

RO=Da −D = 5.43−4.52=0.91 in.

6. depth stored in root zone

D s=
( 4 ) ( 400 ) + ( 4+32. 82 ) 100+( 3 . 82+32 .75 )13 = 3. 98 in .
513

7. Ea

E a=100
( D a −( DP+ RO )
Da )
= 100 (
5. 43−( 0 . 52+ 0 .91 )
5. 43 )
= 73 . 7 %

8. Es

E S =100
DS
D ( ) ( )
=100
3. 98
4. 00
=99. 5 %
Cu

(
C u= 1 . 0−
2 .65
)
( 513 ) ( 4 . 52 )
100=88 . 6 %

Improving the effectiveness of surface irrigation

Land smoothing, reuse of tailwater, cutback irrigation, and surge flow irrigation can be employed
to improve the effectiveness of surface irrigation. Land smoothing which involves the use of soil
removed from high spots on the land surface to remove depressions, improves effectiveness by
increasing the uniformity of application. Tailwater reuse and cutback irrigation increase
application efficiency

Land smoothing: This is the process of moving soil from high spots on the land surface to low
spots to provide a more uniform plane for water flow.

Tailwater reuse: Tailwater systems collect runoff water and make it available for reuse. Resuse
systems usually include collection ditches or diked areas at the lower end of the field, an open
channel or pipe drain that directs the collected water to a storage reservoir and a means of
returning the collected water to the same field or delivering it to another field.

Cutback irrigation: This involves decreasing (cutting back) the rate of inflow to graded furrows
during an irrigation to reduce runoff losses, and improve application efficiency. The basic
strategy of cutback irrigation is to reduce runoff from a field by matching the rate at which water
enters the soil to the average infiltration capacity of the soil to the length of the furrow.

Cablegation: This is a semi-automated concept for achieving cutbacks in furrow systems. It

consists of a gated pipe with the gates located near the top of the pipe and laid on a slope along
the head end of the field. The pipe serves as both conveyance and distribution pipe.

Surge flow irrigation: this involves intermittent (rather than continuous) inflow to furrows. It is
accomplished by alternating periods of constant, nonzero inflow to furrows with rest periods of
zero inflow. The duration of time between successive inflow periods, called the cycle time, is
chosen so that several on-off cycles are required to complete the advanced phase of the
irrigation. During the advance phase, the duration of rest periods is normally long enough for
most, if not all, water to infiltrate before the next inflow period begins. The ratio of on to off
times is the cycle ratio.

Design of surface irrigation systems

Surface irrigation system design involves developing specifications for economically and
technically feasible layouts of application, delivery, and drainage facilities. The designs of
basin, border, and furrow systems with constant stream will be discussed in this section.

Infiltration data for surface system design

The relationship between cumulative infiltration depth and time is a prerequisite to surface
system design. This relationship can be developed from the infiltration rate versus time
relationship for the soil. (For related discussion in this topic, see Chapter II.)

Use of mathematical models in surface system design

Mathematical models are being used more and more in surface system design. They are used to
make a variety of calculations, including the position of the wetting and drying fronts during
advance and recession, and the uniformity and efficiency of irrigation. They improve the quality
of the design by allowing the designer to consider several combinations of stream size, field
length and slope. In addition, spatial and temporal changes in soil characteristics between and
within irrigations can be more thoroughly evaluated.

Several techniques with varying levels of sophistication have been developed to mathematically
model surface irrigation process. Mot of these approaches are based upon the fundamental
principles of conservation of mass, momentum, and/or energy.

Design of level basins

Level basin irrigation involves dividing the irrigated area into level units bounded by temporary
or semi-permanent dikes or ridges. Temporary ridges may be used for single irrigation or for an
entire cropping season. Semi-permanent ridges are used for perennial crops and for annual crops
such as rice that are grown on the same land year after year.

As with other irrigation systems, the design of level-basins systems is an iterative process. It
involves adjusting system layouts , inflow times, stream sizes, basin dimensions, and the number
of basins irrigated per set until desired blend of efficiency, uniformity, adequacy, convenience of
operation, and cost is achieved.

Layout: It is desirable that the long axis of basins be perpendicular to supply channels and
pipelines. Drains are sometimes placed at the ends of basins midway between the supply lines to
remove the excess water resulting from over irrigation or heavy rainfall. Key factors affecting
system layout include water resource location, field topography, and basin dimensions.

Land smoothing: This improves the uniformity and efficiency of irrigation by eliminating high
and low areas within basins that uneven infiltration of ponded water. It reduces labor
requirements and greatly facilitates the layout of supply channels, roadways and drainways by
permitting rectangular rather than odd-shaped basins.

Irrigation time: This is the infiltration opportunity time (IOT) required to infiltrate the desired
depth of irrigation.

Stream size: in level basin irrigation, this should be as large as possible to maximize application
efficiency and uniformity, but small enough not to cause excessive erosion.

Inflow time: This is usually selected to allow the desired irrigation depth to be applied at the far
end of the basin. When there is no runoff, basin inflow time is the sum of the advance time and
the time required to deliver the volume of water needed to provide the desired depth of irrigation.
Ridge dimensions: The crown width of a basin should be at least as wide as the ridge is high.
Basin ridges should have a settled height that equals or exceeds the maximum depth of flow plus
5 cm.

Number of basins irrigated per set: The following equation is used to compute the number of
basins irrigated per set:

( N T )( T i ) ( DDIR ) ( E a )
N B ,=
144 , 000 ( D )

where NB = number of basins irrigated per set

NT = total number of basins being irrigated
Ti = inflow time (min)
DDIR = design daily irrigation requirement (mm/day)
Ea = application efficiency
D = desired depth of irrigation
Delivery system: Delivery system design begins when the desired combination of irrigation
time, stream size, inflow time, basin dimensions, and the number of basins irrigated per set have
been identified.

Design of graded borders

In border irrigation, fields are subdivided into relatively long, narrow stripes of uniform width
called borders. Earth ridges are constructed along the edge of each border to guide a sheet flow
of water down the sloping long axis of the border.
The design of graded (sloping) borders is an iterative process that involves adjusting system
layout, land slopes, inflow times, border length, stream sizes, and the number of borders irrigated
per set until the desired combination of uniformity, efficiency, adequacy, and convenience of
operation are achieved.

Layout: border irrigation systems are laid so that supply channel or pipeline delivers water to
the upper end of each border. In addition, it is desirable that border ridges be constructed
parallel to field boundary to make irrigation and other cultural operations simpler and more
convenient.

Border system layout is also affected by the location of the water source, and length and width of
the borders. Border width must be wide enough to accommodate at least one pass of the farm
equipment to be used.

Land smoothing: Land smoothing improves the application uniformity of border irrigation by
eliminating furrows and other depressions that concentrate the flow. Although borders with no
cross-slope are preferred because higher uniformities are possible, borders with cross-slopes are
sometimes constructed on lands with severe natural terrain.

Irrigation time: The irrigation time for border irrigation is determined by using the Kostiakov
equation or the Philip’s equation whose parameters are determined for the specific field
conditions. (see Chapter II)

Stream size: The design stream size for a graded border must be small enough to be non-erosive
and to adequately spread water across the width of the border. The design stream must also
result in rates of advance and recession that are essentially equal.

The maximum non-erosive stream size for non-sod forming crops such as small grains, is
estimated using the following equation:

Table 20: Typical border lengths for different soils.

Typical border length
Soil
m ft
Clay 180-350 600-1150
Clay loam 90-300 300-1000
Sandy loam 90-250 300-800
 Loamy sand 75-150 250-500
Sand 60-90 200-300

Table 21: Recommended maximum border widths for different slopes in the direction of flow
Maximum border width
Slope in %
m ft
Level 60 200
0.0 - 0.1 35 120
0.1 - 0.5 20 60
0.5 - 1.0 15 50
1.0 – 2.0 12 40
2.0 – 4.0 9 30
4.0 – 6.0 6 20
K
Qmax = −0 . 75
S0

where Qmax = maximum non-erosive stream size (m3/s/m)

S0 = slope of the graded border (%)
K = unit constant (= 1.765 (10)-4)

For well-established, dense crops, the value as computed above is doubled.

Stream size selection must consider the effect of depletion and recession phases as well as the
storage and advance phases. The duration of the depletion phase, often called the lag time, for
graded borders can be estimated with the following equation:

0. 2

T L=
n 1. 2
( K)
Q
for S ≤0 . 4 %

(( )
0. 175 1. 60

120 S0 +
0. 0094 n (Q K )
T 0i . 88 S00 . 5
0. 2

T L=
n1. 2 ( K)
Q
for S > 0 . 4 %
120 S 0

where TL = lag time (min)

n = Manning roughness coefficient
Q = stream size (m3/s/m)
S0 = border slope
Ti = infiltration opportunity for desired application depth (min)
K = unit constant (= 1.0)
Inflow time:

As with other surface irrigation systems, the inflow time for borders is normally selected to allow
the desired depth of irrigation to be applied at the far end of the border. The inflow time is
estimated by assuming that the advance and recession curves are parallel using the equation:

Ti = T I – TL

where Ti = inflow time (min)

TI = IOT for desired application depth (min)
Ta = time to advance across the border (min)
TL = lag time (min)

Ridge dimensions:

The height of border ridges must be at least 3 cm greater than the maximum depth of flow.
Maximum depth of flow should be collected in the field.

Number of borders irrigated per set:

The number of borders to be irrigated is calculated in the same manner as in for basins.

Design of furrow systems

In furrow irrigation, water is distributed across fields in small , evenly spaced, shallow, usually
sloping channels. In contrast to basin and border irrigation, furrows don not wet the entire soil
surface. Efficient irrigation therefore depends on the lateral movement of water from the
furrows.

Furrow system design is an iterative process similar to those used for basin and border system
design. System layout, furrow slope, inflow and irrigation times, furrow length, stream size, and
the number of furrows irrigated per set are adjusted until the desired combination of efficiency,
uniformity, adequacy and convenience of operation are obtained. The basin irrigation design
procedures are also used to design systems with level-impoundment type furrows. The
suggested maximum length for cultivated furrows for different soils, slopes, and depths to be
applied are shown in the following table.

Furrow spacing:

The distance between furrows should be based on optimum crop spacing, modified if necessary
to obtain adequate lateral wetting and accommodate farm equipment. A standard furrow spacing
is often used for different crops to make use of the same farm equipment. This eliminates
changing the spacing of the tool attachments when the equipment is moved from one crop to
another.
The lateral movement of water from furrows in soils with uniform profiles depends primarily on
the texture of the soil. Sandy soils that tend to have a vertical wetted pattern should have a closer
furrow spacing than clay or loam soils. Soils with non-uniform profiles will generally have
lateral movement of water than soils laying above less permeable layers or above abrupt changes
in soil texture.

Table 22: Suggested maximum length for cultivated furrows for different soils, slopes, and
depths to be applied.
Average depth of water applied (m)
Furrow
7.5 15 22.5 30 5 10 15 20 5 7.5 10 12.5
slope (%)
Clays Loams Sands
0.05 300 400 400 400 120 270 400 400 60 90 150 190
0.1 340 440 470 500 180 340 440 470 90 120 190 220
0.2 370 470 530 620 220 370 470 530 120 190 250 300
0.3 400 500 620 800 280 400 500 600 150 220 280 400
0.5 400 500 560 750 280 370 470 530 120 190 250 300
1.0 280 400 500 600 250 300 370 470 90 150 220 250
1.5 250 340 430 500 220 280 340 400 80 120 190 220
2.0 220 270 340 400 180 250 300 340 60 90 150 190

B. Sprinkler Irrigation

Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System :

Sprinkler irrigation has been particularly popular in humid regions because it is suitable to a
wide range of topographic conditions, soils and crops, and because surface ditches and land
grading are not necessary.

 Design for system requirements

Determine the area to be irrigated per application. Data needed are as follows :

1. maximum rate of irrigation – must be equal to or less than the infiltration capacity fc of
the soil

infiltration

fc

time
2. irrigation rate/frequency

net depth of irrigation

irrigation frequency =
ET peak (or consumptive use)

dn
Ip =
ET crop

3. depth of application, dn :

dn = dAWC = dFC - dPWP

FC w % − PWP w %
dn = ∗ A s ∗ D rz ∗ % depletion
100

FC v % − PWP v %
dn = ∗ Drz ∗ % depletion
100

FC = 1/3 atm ; PWP = 15 atm

 dn = dAWC * % depletion allowable

% depletion  45% or see recommended values for different types of soils and crops

dgross = dn/ Ea where Ea is application efficiency

areatotal
system capacity =
irrigation period∗N

where N = # of settings (or application)

d gr
application time = ⇒ application rate ≤ f c
max . application rate
 Design for capacity of sprinkler system

The capacity of a sprinkler system depends on the area to be irrigated, depth of water
applied at each irrigation, frequency of application, and actual operating time for each irrigation.
It is convenient to express the capacity by the following formula :

da
Q=
t

where Q = capacity of the system

d = depth of application
a = area to be covered
t = total time of application

 Design for sprinkler capacity

When the rate of application and the spacing of the sprinklers have been determined, the
required system capacity can be computed by the formula

q = Sl Sm r

where q = discharge of each sprinkler

Sl = sprinkler spacing along the lateral
Sm = sprinkler spacing along the main
r = application rate

The theoretical discharge of a nozzle may be computed from the orifice flow formula :

Q = aC √2 gh
For simplification of calculation, this may be reduced to

Q = 29.85 C dn2 P1/2 (0.00111)

where q = nozzle discharge (gpm/lps)

C = coefficient of discharge
dn = diameter of nozzle (inch/mm)
P = pressure at the nozzle (psi/kPa)
 The coefficient of dischage for well-designed small nozzles varies from 0.95 to 0.98.
Some nozzles have coefficients as low as 0.80. Normally, the larger the nozzle, the lower is the
coefficient. Where the sprinkler has two (2) nozzles, the total discharge is the combined capacity
of both.

 Sprinkler selection and spacing

a. diameter of coverage required

b. pressure available
c. capacity of sprinkler

or refer to Table 23.3 and Table 23.4 (Schwab et al)

 Size of laterals and mains

Laterals and mains should provide the rate of flow required with a reasonable head loss.
For laterals, the sections at the distant end of the line have less water to carry and may
therfore be smaller. However, authorities advise against ‘ tapering ‘ of pipe diameters in
laterals, as it then becomes necessary to keep the various pipe sizes in the same relative
position.

ASAE recommends that the total pressure variation in the laterals when practicable,
should not be more than 20% of the higher pressure. If the laterals run up- or downhill,
allowance for this difference in elevation should be made in determining the variation in
head. If the water runs uphill, less pressure will be available at the nozzle ; if it runs
downhill, there will be a tendency to balance the loss of head due to friction.

Scobey’s equation for friction or head loss in pipes :

K s LQ 1 . 9
Hf = 4.9
( 1 . 45 x 10−8 )
D
where Hf = total friction loss in the line (ft)
Ks = Scobey’s coefficient of retardation
= 0.32 for new Transite pipe
= 0.40 for steel pipe
= 0.42 for portable galvanized steel pipe
L = length of pipe (ft)
Q = total discharge (gpm)
D = inside diameter of the pipe (ft)

The Darcy-Weisbach equation can also be used :

Hf = K L Q1.75 D-4.75
Where Q = li/sec
Hf = m
L=m
D = mm
K = 7.89 x 105 for water at 20 oC

To obtain actual loss, multiply Hf by a factor F (Table 23.5, Schwab et al) or refer to
Trickle irrigation system portion of this manual.

 when the computed diameter is a fractional size, the closest nominal diameter should be
selected.

 the diameter of the main should be adequate to supply the laterals in each of their positions
 the rate of flow required for each lateral may be determined by the total capacity of the
sprinklers on the lateral
 the position of the laterals that gives the highest friction loss in the main should be used for
design purposes.

The design capcity for sprinklers on the lateral is based on average operating pressure. Where
the friction loss, Hf, in the laterals is within 20% of the average pressure, the average head Ha for
design in a sprinkler line can be expressed approximately by

Ha = Ho + ¼ Hf (a)

Where Ho = is the pressure at the farthest end.

Where the lateral is on a nearly level land or on the contour, the head (pressure) at the main

Hn = Ho + Hf (b)

Solving for Ho in (a) and multiplying in (b) and by making an allowance for differences in
elevation along the lateral

Hn = Ha + ¾ Hf  ¾ He + Hr

Where He = maximum difference in elevation between the first and last sprinkler on the lateral
Hr = riser height
¾ He = an approximation since the allowance for the difference in elevation varies with
the # of sprinklers on the lateral
- if the lateral runs down the slope from the main, the term is (-)

 Guidelines in selecting sprinkler nozzles and spacing

1. Look at the sprinkler manufacturer’s chart to choose a solution to the equation

 q
r=
Sl Sm

They provide a list of various combinations of nozzle diameter, operating pressure and
spacing to produce precipitation rate below the maximum dictated by the soil infiltration
capacity fc.

2. The values of Sm are applied to the given equation to check if the resulting total length of
sprinkler can be divided into convenient number of laterals of length to suit the geometry
of different fields.
3. Lateral lengths are divided by the corresponding values of Sl to find the necessary number
of sprinklers and check against undue or underwatering at the end of the line.
4. The final selection of sprinkler nozzle or nozzles, operating pressure and spacing, is made
by considering the costs, uniformity of watering and effects of operating pressure and
drop size.
5. Note that precipitation rates below the maximum can be used if the longer setting time
(duration per setting) fit more easily into the working day. This practice has the added
advantage in improving watering conditions with respect to soil structure and aeration.

dg
t= ⇒ min imum ¿ of days so that will be no over application ¿
r max

Performance evaluation of sprinkler irrigation systems:

Very often, manufacturers specify operating conditions for their products without verification on
the part of the consumers. In some cases, the installers of the system are to be blamed of in cases
where there are operational problems like uneven watering of the plants in a given area. To do
away with such a problem, it is necessary that a random check of systems operations be done
using prescribed methods of testing. For example, the actual distribution uniformity (DU) and
the actual coefficient of uniformity (CU) can be evaluated given a set of installed sprinklers in
the field. Among the steps are as follows:

1. Select a set of sprinklers installed in the field.

2. Using pressure gauge, determine the pressure exerted at the sprinkler. Also, determine
the discharge emitted at the sprinkler head, if possible, in reference to manufacturer’s
specifications.
3. Place the catch cans (cups) in the designated area covered by the said sprinklers with a
distance of 1 m apart if the diameter of throw of the sprinkler is less than or equal to 5.0
meters.
4. Upon start of the sprinkler system, record the time of start and stop. With at least 15
minutes continuous operation of the system and after the system is shut down, measure
and record the volume of water received by each catch can using a graduated cylinder.
5. Rank the catch can volumes from highest to the lowest.
6. Compute the overall mean catch can volume.
7. Compute the average of the Lowest quarter of the catch volume.
 8. To determine the distribution uniformity in percent, of one of the sprinklers, the average
of the lowest ¼ of the catch can data is divided by the average catch can data and
multiplied by 100. That is, step 7 divided by step 6.

average of lowest one−fourth catch can volume

DU = x 100 %
mean of catch can data
9. To determine the coefficient of uniformity in percent of the system, the distribution
uniformity is subtracted from the 100% and the result is multiplied by 0.63. The product
is subtracted from 100%. That is,

CU = 100 –0.63 (100-DU)

Measure the sprinkler head pressure installed at the beginning and farthest end of the
system.

10. To measure the system’s distribution uniformity, determine the minimum pressure, Pn,
for all the sprinklers installed in the field and the average pressure, Pa, by adding all
pressures exerted by each sprinkler and divided by the total number of sprinklers.

Pn = minimum pressure
Pa = (P1+P2+…+Pn)/N

( )
1/2
Pn
1+3
Pa
System DU =DU
4

Note: The catch cans (cups) are placed at an interval of 1m or greater depending on the
sprinkler’s diameter of throw. Also, only one set of sprinklers will be tested with the assumption
that there will be set of sprinklers on both side of the lateral.

 Sample Design /Application:

DESIGN OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Introduction

Sprinkler irrigation has been particularly popular in humid regions because it is suitable to a
wide range of topographic conditions, soils, and crops and because surface ditches and land
grading are not necessary. Portable rotating-head sprinkler system is common not only in humid
regions but in the West as well. Handbooks and design pamphlets on sprinkler irrigation have
been issued by commercial organizations. In this design problem, we specifically use the
“Handy Data for the Sprinkling Expert in Agriculture, Horticulture, Landscape, Sportsground and
Environment Protection” published by Perrot-Regnerbau GmbH & Co.

Design Procedure

Not only should the sprinkler system be properly designed hydraulically and economically, but
also the design should be adapted to the availability of labor for moving the sprinklers and the
pipe. The frequency of moving laterals, system layout, and capacity of the system should be
carefully considered for each farm. The three basic facts to be established before the design of
the sprinkler system is initiated are the limiting rate of application, the irrigation period, and the
depth of application. The rate of application is limited by the infiltration capacity of the soil.
Application at rates in excess of the soil infiltration capacity result in runoff with accompanying
distribution of water, loss of water, and erosion

Application rates well below the maximum have been found beneficial. Rates of one-half the
infiltration rate of the soil combined with nozzle pressures which provide a fine spray have
resulted in improved maintenance of soil structure and minimization of soil compaction.

The depth of application and the irrigation period are closely related. Irrigation period is the
time required to cover an area with one application of water. The depth of application will
depend on the available moisture-holding capacity of the soil.

Under humid conditions rains may bring the entire field up to a given moisture level. As the
plants use this moisture, the moisture level for the entire field decreases. Irrigation must be
started soon enough to enable the field to be covered before plants in the last portion to be
irrigated suffer from moisture deficiency.

 General Rules for Sprinkler System Design and Layout

In general, sprinkler spacings both along the lateral and on the main should be as wide as
possible to reduce labor costs. Since greater spacing require higher pressures and thus higher
pumping costs, these wide spacings are more easily justified where the power costs are low.
Greater spacings also require a higher application rate in which case the infiltration rate may be
the limiting factor.

The following general rules for layout should be kept in mind:

1. Mains should be laid up- and downhill.
2. Laterals should be laid across slope or nearly on the contour.
3. For multiple lateral operation, lateral pipe sizes should be limited to not more than two
diameters.
4. If possible, water supply nearest the center of the area should be chosen.
5. For more balanced design, sequence of lateral operation should be provided.
6. Layout should facilitate and minimize lateral movement during the season.
7. Difference in the number of sprinklers operating for the various set-ups should be held to a
minimum.
8. Booster pumps should be considered where small portions of the field would require a
higher pressure at the pump.
9. Layout should be modified to apply different rates and amounts of water where soils are
greatly different in the design area.

Statement of the Problem

A 3-ha farm is to be cultivated with potato, cabbage, and onions. The area whose dimensions are
300 m x 100 m is to be divided equally (i.e. 3- 100 m x 100 m) for the three crops. The nearest
edge of the farm from surface water source is 50 m and the maximum distance of the ground
surface and the water surface is 5 m (see Fig. 1). The area is relatively flat.

100 m 100 m 100 m

Stream
100 m 50 m
Potato Cabbage Onions

(a)
5m

(b)

Fig. 1. (a) Farm layout and (b) stream cross-section.

Additional information are given as follows:

Rainfall data (mm):

J F M A M J J A S O N D
 130 112 141 141 178 67 80 85 116 207 197 194
 80 75 90 54 86 50 53 73 45 103 73 112

Evapotranspiration data (mm):

J F M A M J J A S O N D
  99 107 111 110 85 110 111 110 109 102 89 90

Crop growing season:

J F M A M J J A S O N D
Potato:

Cabbage:

Onion:

Crop coefficients, kc:

1st month 2nd month 3rd month last month
Potatoes 0.60 1.05 0.75
Cabbage 0.60 0.85 1.10 0.90
Onion 0.65 1.00 0.80

Coefficient for bare soil, kb: 0.30

Runoff coefficient: 0.20

Root zone depth: 35 cm

Allowable depletion rate: 30%

Field losses: 30%

Computation of effective precipitation:

Using the  and the  values for a standard normal distribution and assuming a
P(Pr ≤ x ) = 0.25 and the relationship

z = { (x) - () } / 

where z = normalized monthly distribution; x = monthly rainfall; and  and  are the
population mean and standard deviation respectively, we could compute for the expected amount
of precipitation for a given month. Then at a given runoff coefficient of 0.20 (i.e. 80% will
infiltrate) the effective precipitation for any month will be

Peff = (x) (80%)

For example, in January at  = 130 and  = 80, the expected precipitation that will fall once in
every four years will be

x = z +  ------------[from statistical tables at P = 0.25, z = -0.67]

= (80) ( -0.67) + (130)
= 76.4 mm

Twenty percent of this will result as runoff, hence

Peff = (76.4) ( 0.80) = 61 mm.

Similarly, the ETc will be computed using the relationship

ETc = (kc) (ETo)

where ETo is the potential evapotranspiration for each month and k c is the crop coefficient for
each crop growing stage. At times when the field is bare (no crops actively growing), ET c is
computed by substituting kb for kc . When half of the month is bare and half is covered the
average kave for that period will be considered.

For a more detailed water balance computation for any given set of climatic data available,
refer to “General Climatology” by C. Vernemmen (RUG).

That is, in January for potato;

ETc = (1.05) (99) = 104 mm and in February;

ETc = {( 0.75 + 0.30)/ (2) } {(107)} = 56 mm

The other values in the tables can be computed using the following equations:

Si = storage at the end of the month with irrigation (initially = 22 mm)

Se = (Peff - ETc) + Si
S’e = Si - Se

where

Si = initial storage
Se = storage at the end of month without irrigation
S’e = storage at the end of the month with irrigation
N = irrigation frequency required to supply the depleted moisture

At a given water retention capacity RAW = 2.1mm/cm and a rootzone depth of 35 cm the storage
capacity of the soil would be
 storage = (2.1mm/cm) (35 cm) = 73.5 mm

If we assume a maximum depletion rate of 30%, then the maximum storage value would be

storage(max) = (0.30) (73.5 mm) = 22.0 mm ----------- (Si )

Upon computing all the required number of N applications for each crop and each month, we
have to sum up the N required and determine which month has the highest frequency. This
period represents the critical month for which the design discharge capacity of the irrigation
project will be based.

The tables below show the summary of results:

Potato:
(mm) J F M A M J J A S O N D
Peff 61 49 65 84 96 27 36 29 69 110 118 95
ETc 104 56 33 66 89 58 33 66 114 54 27 54
Peff - ETc -43 -7 32 18 7 -31 3 -37 -45 56 91 41
Si 22 1 16 22 22 22 13 22 7 6 22 22
Se -21 -6 22 22 22 -9 16 -15 -38 22 22 22
S’e 1 16 22 22 22 13 22 7 6 22 22 22
N 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 0
Cabbage:
(mm) J F M A M J J A S O N D
Peff 61 49 65 84 96 27 36 29 69 110 118 95
ETc 89 64 94 121 77 66 94 121 98 61 76 99
Peff - ETc -28 -15 -29 -37 19 -39 -58 -92 -29 49 42 -4
Si 22 16 22 15 0 22 5 13 9 2 22 22
Se -6 1 -7 -22 19 -17 -53 -79 -20 22 22 18
S’e 16 22 15 0 22 5 13 9 2 22 22 22
N 1 0 1 1 0 1 3 4 1 0 0 0
Onion:
(mm) J F M A M J J A S O N D
Peff 61 49 65 84 96 27 36 29 69 110 118 95
ETc 64 107 61 72 85 61 72 110 60 66 89 50
Peff - ETc -3 -58 4 12 11 -34 -36 -81 9 44 29 45
Si 22 22 8 22 22 22 10 18 3 22 22 22
Se 19 -36 12 22 22 -12 -26 -63 12 22 22 22
S’e 22 8 22 22 22 10 18 3 22 22 22 22
N 0 2 0 0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0

It can be readily seen that August is the most critical month requiring a total of 8 irrigation
frequencies (1 for potato, 4 for cabbage and 3 for onion). It is from this value that the design
capacity of the sprinkler system will be based.

Selection of sprinkler components:

Irrigation volume at N = 8 :
 without losses : (22 mm) (8) = 176 mm = 1760 m³ = 176 li/ m²
with losses (30%): (22 mm) (8) (1.30) = 228.8 mm = 2288 m³ (say 2300 m³)

Operational conditions:

Irrigation will only be applied for 20 days within a month and at 16 hours/day operation. This
gives a discharge per day of

Qday = (2300 m³) / (20 days) = 115 m³ / day

Irrigation should then be applied such that in 20 days, we must be able to irrigate 8 ha or for one
day --- 0.40 ha. If we decide to split the irrigation time into two sessions (i.e. 2 x 8 hrs) we
must be able to irrigate 2000 m² in a single operation with a limiting infiltration rate of 28.6
mm/hr.

Referring to the specifications provided by Perrot , the following data were obtained:

Operating data for PERROT Circle Sprinkler : ZE 30

 single-jet
 Trajectory angle : 30°
 connection : 1” ex. th.

Amount of water to be applied (with losses) = 28.6 mm

For economical purposes, design for a movable system ( pattern):
Depth of water applied at 3.8 mm/hr and 7.67 hrs (20 mins. allowed for moving laterals) is

(3.8 mm/hr) (7.67 hrs) = 29.15 mm  28.6 mm (okey)

Nozzle Pres. at Cast Water Suitable sprinkler Sprinkled area (m²) Sprinkling density
φ sprinkler range used spacing (m) (mm/hr)
mm bar m m³/hr  :patter  :patter  :pattern  :pattern  :pattern  :pattern
n n
2.5 13.0 1.04 12/18 18/18 216 324 4.8 2.88
4.2 3.0 14.5 1.14 18/18 18/24 324 432 3.52 2.36
3.5 15.3 1.23 18/18 18/24 324 432 3.8 2.57
4.0 16.0 1.32 18/18 18/24 324 432 4.07 2.76

Number of sprinklers required = (2000 m²) / (324 m²/sprinkler) = 6 sprinklers

System layout:

potato cabbage onion

direction of application
95 m
Source

294 m 50 m
( Sprinklers are spaced at 18 m apart along the lateral , the first sprinkler being at 5 m from the
main line. Likewise, lateral position along the main are spaced at 18 m apart the first and last
lateral positions being at 6 m away from the farm boundaries.)

Plan Schedule:
Week Crops to irrigate No. of days
1 Potato Cabbage 5
2 Cabbage Onion 5
3 Cabbage Onion 5
4 Cabbage Onion 5

For one irrigation the area covered is 2000 m², hence for one hectare - 2.5 days.
If one works for five days a week, a total of 2 ha is irrigated (two days rest period).

This table shows irrigation plan for the most critical period (August) . Other schedules could be
prepared as such to conform with the irrigation requirements of each crop for every month.

Computation of head losses:

Friction losses along the lines:

Main:
 Length L = 344 m
 Qmain = {(1.23 m³/hr)/ (sprinkler)} {6 sprinklers} = 7.38 m³/hr

From page 49, underground pipeline AZ:

Try DN100: Friction loss  0.20 m / 100m
Hmain = (0.20 m/100 m) (344 m) = 0.69 m

Lateral:
 Length l = 95 m
 Qlat = Qmain = 7.38 m³/hr

On page 46, PERROT Quick-Coupling pipes:

Try  = 70 mm: Friction loss  0.75 m/100 m
Hlat = (0.75 m/100 m) (95 m) = 0.71 m
Total friction losses Htot:

Htot = Hmain + Hlat

= 0.69 m + 0.71 m = 1.4 m
Add 10% for general head losses: (1.4 m) (1.10) = 1.54 m
Pressure head : 3.5 bars = 35 m

Elevation head : 5 m

Manometric head = Pressure head + Htot + Elevation head

= 35 + 1.54 + 5 m
= 41.54 m

Power requirements:

P = gHQ/3600

where P = power requirement(W)

 = density of water (kg/m³)
g = gravitational constant (m/sec²)
H = manometric head loss (m)
Q = discharge at the pump site (m³/hr)

Therefore,

P = (1000) (9.81) (41.54) (7.38) / 3600

= 835.39 W

At 70% pump efficiency,

P = (835.39 W)/ (0.70) = 1193.4 W ( 1.62 hp)

C. Trickle Irrigation

I. Introduction

Trickle irrigation is the frequent, slow application of water either directly onto the land
surface or into the root zone of the crop. Trickle irrigation is based on the fundamental concepts
of irrigating only the root zone of the crop (rather than the entire soil surface) and maintaining
the water content of the root zone at near optimum levels. Irrigating only a portion of the land
surface limits evaporation (by limiting the evaporative surface), reduces weed growth (few
weeds grow in unirrigated areas, and minimizes interruption of cultural operations (i.e., tillage
harvesting, etc., and irrigation can be carried out simultaneously). Trickle irrigation systems are
often designed to operated daily for nearly entire day and to supply water to only the root zone of
the crop.
Benefits of trickle irrigation

Trickle irrigation has many desirable features. Higher yields, improved crop quality, and
reduced water and energy use have all been attributed to trickle irrigation. Because there is
usually less deep percolation, runoff , and evaporation and since only a portion of the potential
root zone is irrigated, trickle irrigation systems use less water than other types of irrigation
systems. Trickle systems generally have lower energy requirements than do sprinkler systems
because of reduced water use and lower operating pressure requirements.

Problems associated with trickle irrigation

There are several problems associated with trickle irrigation. The most severe problem is
the clogging of the system components by particulate, chemical and biological materials.
Clogging can cause poor uniformity of application and if continues long enough, can severely
damage the crop.

Because a trickle irrigation system normally wets only a part of the potential root zone,
crop root development is normally limited to the wetted portion of the root zone.

II. Trickle irrigation methods

Trickle irrigation encompasses several methods of irrigation, including drip, subsurface,

bubbler, and spray irrigation .

Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is the slow, nearly continuous application of water as discrete crops.
Water can be applied at a single point on the land surface through devices called emitters or as
line source from either closely spaced emitters or tubes with continuous or equally spaced
openings that discharge water a drop at a time. Discharge rates for point source emitters are
generally less than 12 li/h and less than 12 li/h per meter of lateral for line source emitters.

Subsurface irrigation

Surface irrigation involves the use of point and line source emitters to apply water below
the soil surface. Subsurface irrigation is different than subirrigation which is the method
wherein the root zone is irrigated through or by water table control. Discharge rates for
subsurface irrigation are generally in the same range as drip irrigation rates.

Bubbler Irrigation

In bubbler irrigation, water is applied to the land surface as a small stream. Water is
delivered to the points of application in tubes that are attached to buried laterals. Because of the
large-diameter tubes, bubbler systems are not as prone to clog and normally have higher
discharge rates than drip and subsurface systems. The higher discharge rates result in higher
application rates and basins or furrows are sometimes needed to control runoff and erosion
Spray irrigation

In spray irrigation, small sprinkler-like devices (often called micro-sprinklers) spray

water as a mist over the land surface. Microsprinklers can be spaced to cover the entire field
surface as with conventional sprinkler systems. The primary advantage of spray over bubbler
irrigation is lower application rates which decrease the potential for runoff and erosion. Losses
due to wind drift and evaporation are, however, greater with sprinkler irrigation than with other
trickle systems.

III. Trickle system components

Emission devices

Emission devices include point- and line-source emitters that operate either above or
below the ground surface, bubblers that discharge small continuous streams of water, and
microsprinklers that spray water over level land surafce. Point- and line-source emitters
generally have smaller passages for discharging water and are more prone to physical, chemical,
and biologically induced clogging than are bubblers or microsprinklers.

Point-source emitters

There are many types and designs of point-source emitters available commercially. Most
point-source emitters are either on-line or in-line emitters. The primary difference between on-
line or in-line emitters is that the entire flow required downstream of the emitter passes through
an in-line emitter.

Point-source emitters can also be classified as long path, orifice or pressure-compensating

emitters. The classification depends on the exponent in the equation below :

Q = kPx

where Q = emitter discharge (volume/time)

P = operating pressure (force/area)
k, x = constants for a specified emitter

long path or laminar-flow: x1

orifice type : x  0.5
pressure compensating : x  0 (positive)

Emitters with exponents less than 0.5 are called pressure-compensating emitters, since
the influence of pressure on discharge is reduced with smaller x values. The degree of pressure
compensation (i.e., the insensitivity of discharge to pressure) increases as x approaches zero.
Pressure-compensating emitters are especially useful in minimizing emitter discharge variation
when large pressure variations due to undulating terrain or system operation are expected.
Line-source emitters

Porous pipes or tape, perforated pipes that discharge water along their entire length,
laterals with closely spaced point-source emitters or micro-sprinklers, and bubblers discharging
into furrows provide a ‘line-source’ of water. Although line sources are used primarily to
irrigate row crops, they have also been used with other crops.

Bubblers

Low-rate bubbler systems use polyethylene tubes ranging in diameter from less than a
millimeter to more than 10 mm to apply small streams of water to the soil surface.

The flow rate from a bubbler tube can be determined by the tube’s diameter and length,
and the operating pressure available in the buried pipe . The bubbler tube discharge can be

( )
0. 57
P
Q=K D 2. 74
L
estimated by :
where

Q = bubbler tube discahrge (li/min)

P = operating pressure (kPa)
L = length of bubbler tube (cm)
D = diameter of bubbler tube (mm)
K = unit constant = 9.02 x 10-2

Microsprinklers

Sprays, spitters, foggers and microsprinklers are being used to overcome some of the
disadvantages of drip systems. These devices have larger orifices than drip emitters, which
reduces the need for filtration to control clogging, allows the crop to be irrigated in a shorter
time, and provides the capacity of protectng the crop from frost. The primary disadvantages of
microsprinklers are the large lateral diameter requirements and increased losses due to
evaporation and wind drift.

Microsprinklers have flowrates that are greater than drip emitters and less than
conventional sprinklers.

Emission device selection

Emission device selection for trickle systems involves choosing the type of device to be
used (i.e., choosing between point-source emitters, line-source emitters, bubblers and
microsprinklers) and then determining the capacity of the device. The type of emission device
depends on such factors as the crop to be irigated, filtration requirements, the need for a cover
crop and or frost protection, cost and grower preference. Microsprinklers should be strongly
considered when a cover crop is neede for erosion, pest or disease control or when frost
pretection is desired. Line-source emitters are especially well-suited for row crops, although
closely spaced point-source emitters, bubblers and microsprinklers may be the most viable
alternatives

The capacity of a trickle irrigation emission device may be computed using the following
equation :

( K ) ( Da ) ( A i )
C =
( H −T m ) ( E a )
where
C = emission device capacity (li/h)
Da = depth of water apllied (mm)
Ai = area irrigated by the emission device (m²)
H = hours of irrigation
Tm = off time for maintenance, soil aeration
K = unit constant = 100

The depth of water to be applied per irrigation, Da, is computed using the following
equation :

( H ) ( DDIR )
Da =
( 0 .24 ) ( Pt )
The H term is normally chosen on the basis of operator preference and / or convenience,
subject to the conditions imposed by the following equation :

( 0 . 24 ) ( Pt ) ( D )
H ≤
DDIR

where

DDIR = design daily irrigation requirement (corresponding to D) in mm/day

D = desired depth of irrigation (mm)

number of emission devices operating per operation

Pt = 100
total number of emission devices
The area irrigated by an emission device, Ai, can be determined using the equation :

( L ) ( S) ( P)
Ai =
( 100 ) ( N e )
where
Ai = area irrigated (m²)
L = spacing between adjacent palnt rows (m)
 S = spacing between emission points (m)
P = percent of cropped area being irrigated
Ne = number of emission devices at each emission point

An emission point is a location where a concentration of water is delivered by one or

more emission devices. Configurations are used to create either line sources or islands of water.
Closely spaced emission points result in a line source of water, while islands of water are created
by placing emission points farther apart. Double lateral, zigzag, pigtail, multi-exit and other
clustering configurations are used to enlarge the irrigated area in soils with poor lateral
transmission properties (e.g., coarse textured soils) and where crops with widely spread areal
root distributions are being trickle irrigated.

The P term in the above equation is 100% when the entire surface of the field is
irrigated ; P normally varies between 30 and 100 %, depending on the crop and its age. It will be
larger for mature crops and crops with relatively close row spacings. For widely spaced vine,
bush and tree crops, 30 to 60% of the horizontal cross section of the root system is irrigated
when it is necessary to keep the surface area between rows relatively dry.

Determining P and the number of emission devices per emission point, N e , needed for
the desired wetting pattern requires information describing the horizontal and vertical movement
of water through the soil. The Ne term is estimated by dividing the total area to be irrigated by
the area wet per emission device. For single laterals with equally spaced emission points, the
following equation relates the number of emission devices per plant to P and Dw :

( K ) ( P) ( S) ( L)
Ne =
( Dw ) ( Sc )
Se = ≤ 0 .8 D w

where
Ne = number of emission devices per emission point ;
Dw = max. diameter of wetted circle formed by a single point source emission
device (cm)
Se = spacing between the emission devices of an emission point (cm)
P = percent of S times L irrigated
K = unit constant = 100

A line source of water is achieved when the spacing between emission plants is less than
or equal to 0.8Dw after which point, islands of water result.

For trickle systems with double laterals or zigzag, pigtail or multi-exit layouts :

( 2) ( K ) ( P) ( S ) ( L)
Ne =
S e ( Se + D w )
 For emission points with one or more microsprinklers, the number of microsprinklers per
emission point is computed with the following equation :

( P) (S ) (L )
Ne =
100 ( As +
( D w ) ( Ps )
2 K )
Dw
Se = D T +
2K

where
As = area wet by a microspronkler (m²)
Ps = perimeter of area wet by microsprinkler (m)
DT = distance of throw (m)
K = unit constant = 100

Trickle irrigation laterals

Laterals deliver water from main lines and submains to the emission devices. Trickle
laterals are designed to maintain an acceptable variation of emission device discharge along their
length. As with sprinkler laterals pressure differences due to pipe friction, minor losses, and
changes of ground surface elevation are important causes of along-the-lateral variation in
emission device discharge. Other significant factors affecting emission device discharge include
water temperature and the quality with which the emission device is manufactured.

The coefficients of manufacturer’s variation describe the quality of the processes used to
manufacture those emission devices. The manufacturer’s coefficient of variation is determined
from flowrate measurements from several identical emission devices and is computed with the
following equation :

1 /2

Cv =
( q21 + q 22 + ⋯ + q 2n− n q 2)
1 /2
q ( n−1 )

where
Cv = manufacturer’s coefficient of variation
q1, q2, …qn = discharge of emission devices (li/h)
qbar = average discharge of emission devices tested (li/h)
n = number of emision devices tested

In cases where the manufacturer’s coefficient of variation and the effect of water
temperatures are not known or not important, a pressure variation of 5% of the design operating
pressure has been used as a criterion, called the emission uniformity, which depends on water
temperature and the manufacturer’s coefficient of variation has been developed for evaluating
trickle lateral design and emission device selection. The emission uniformity is defined for
point- and line-source emitters by

( )
1. 27 Q
EU = 100 1. 0 − C v min
√N e Qave

where
EU = the design emission uniformity in percent
Ne = number of point source emitters per emission point ; the spacing between
plants divided by the unit length of lateral line used to calculate Cv or 1,
whichever is greater, for a line source emitter
Cv = the manufacturer’s coefficient of variation for point- or line-source emitters
Qmin = the minimum emitter discharge rate in the system (li/h)
Qave = the average or design emitter discharge rate (li/h)

Based on ASAE criteria, EU should be  90%. If EU is less than 90%, this could be
improved by reducing the difference between Qmin and Qave (by using larger diameter and/or
shorter laterals or by using pressure-compensating emitters), using an emitter with a lower Cv, or
increasing Ne. When emitters with higher Cv are used, more emitters per emission point are
required to achieve acceptable emission uniformity.

Because of the possibility of laminar, turbulent, or fully turbulent flow in trickle laterals
(rather than only fully turbulent flow as in sprinkler laterals), the Darcy-Weisbach equation
should be used to compute head loss due to pipe friction. The Darcy-Weisbach friction factor f,
for small diameter trickle tubing is related to the Reynold’s number NR. Reynold’s number NR is
computed with the following equation :

ρDV
NR =
K μ
where
NR = Reynold’s number
 = density of water (g/cm³)
D = diameter of pipe (cm)
V = average velocity (cm/s)
 = viscosity of fluid (N-s/m²)
K = unit constant (10)

The equation used to compute f depends on the magnitude of NR. For NR less than 2000
(laminar flow)

64
f =
NR
 For NR between 2000 and 100,000 (turbulent flow)

f = 0 . 32 N
R−0 . 25

f = 0 . 80 + 2 . 0 log
(√ )
NR
f
For NR greater than 100,000 (fully turbulent flow)

Either the Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-Williams, or Scobey equation can be used to compute

the friction losses. These equations can be written in the form

K c L Qm
Hf =
D 2m + n
where
Hf = friction loss in pipe (m)
K = friction factor that depends on pipe material
L = length of pipe (m)
Q = flowrate (li/min)
D = diameter of pipe (mm)
C, m, n = constants (taken from the table below :

Method of computing Hf c m n
Darcy-Weisbach 277778 2.0 1.0
Hazen-Williams 591722 1.85 1.17
Scobey 610042 1.90 1.10

Other versions of the above equations (for convenience) can be written as :

Darcy-Weisbach Equation :

H f = K L Q1 .75 D−4 . 75
where
K = 7.89 x 105 for SI units for water at 20°C
L = pipe length (m)
Q = total pipe flow (li/s)
D = inside diameter of pipe (mm)

Hazen-Williams Equation :
1.852
 Q
Hf  0.628 L D  4.865 100 
 C
 where
L = pipe length (m)
D = pipe diameter (mm)
Q = flowrate (li/s)
C = pipe roughness coefficient

For maximum velocity of 1.5 m/s, the recommended value of C is a function of D :

Diameter, D (mm) C
14 - 15 130
18 - 19 140
25 -27 150

The Hazen-Williams equation with C = 150 can also be used to estimate head loss due to
pipe friction when NR > 100,000.

The correction factor F for friction losses:

a. Fc : first outlet at full spacing between adjacent outlets

1 1 a 1
Fc   
a  1 2N 6N ²

b. Fn : first outlet at half spacing between adjacent outlets

2 N Fc  1
Fn 
2 N 1

c. Fx : first outlet at the inlet to the lateral near the valve

N Fc  1
Fx 
N 1
where
N = number of outlets
a = 1.852 for Hazen-Williams equation
= 1.75 for Darcy-Weisbach equation

Mainlines and submains :

 Laterals and line-source tubing are connected to a submain or in some cases, directly to a
mainline. Mainlines and submains are normally PVC, although asbestos-cement pipe is
occasionally used for mainlines. Each mainline and submain should have a manual or solenoid
activated valve at its upstream end to provide on-off service and for isolation purposes. An on-
off valve at the downstream end of the mainlines and submains for periodic flushing is
recommended. Submains may also have pressure-regulating valves, flow control valves,
secondary filters, flowmeters and pressure gauges.

Possible causes of changes in Trickle system flow :

Increased flow
Improperly adjusted /open valves
Pipeline leaks/breaks
Pressure downstream of pressure regulators is too high
Worn/oversized emission devices
System on too long (as indicated by higher than expected volumes of flow)

Decreased flow
Improperly adjusted valves
Clogged emission devices , filters, and other components
Pump wear
Pressure downstream of pressure regulators too low
Existence of entrapped air in system
System not on long enough (as indicated by lower than expected volumes of flow)

Control head :

The control head of a trickle system contains the pumping plant, primary filters, chemical
injection equipment, backflow prevention devices, flowmeters, pressure gauges, valving, and
automatic controllers.

Control of trickle system clogging

Trickle irrigation systems have very low flowrates and extremely small passages for
water. These passages are easily clogged by mineral particles and organic debris carried in the
irrigation water and by chemical precipitates and bilogical growths that develop within the
system. The result of clogging is either the complete or partial stoppage of flow through clogged
components.

Major physical contributors to clogging are summarized below. They include mineral
particles of sand, silt and clay, and debris that are too large to pass through the small openings of
filters and emission devices. Silt and clay particles are usually much smaller than the smallest
passages are often deposited in the low-velocity areas of laterals where they coagulate to form
masses large enough to clog emission devices.

Physical, chemical, and biological contributors to clogging of trickle systems :

 A. Physical B. Chemical C. Biological
(suspended particles) (precipitation) (bacteria & algae)

a. Organic a. calcium carbonate a. filaments

1. moss, aquatic plants, b. calcium sulfate b. slime
and algae c. heavy metal, hydroxides, c. microbial deposition
2. fish, snails, etc. oxides, carbonates, sili- 1. iron
b. Inorganic cates and sulfides 2. sulfur
1. sand d. fertilizers 3. manganese
2. silt 1. phosphate
3. clay 2. aqueous ammonia
3. iron, zinc, copper,
manganese

IV. Fertilizer injection

Liquid fertilizer can be applied directly while irrigating with trickle systems. Fertilizers
and other chemicals are usually injected into the chemical injector located upstream of filters.

V. Hydraulics of drip irrigation

Determination of variation of pressure head along a line :

 1  1  i 
m 1
Ri
Or
H i
Ri 
H

Where
Ri = pressure drop ratio
H = total pressure drop due to friction
Hi = pressure drop at length ratio, i (l/L)
L = total length of pipe
l = given length measured from the head end of the line
m = exponent of flowrate in the friction equation
= 1.852

Lateral line
l

L
Pressure variation along a drip irrigation line :

 v² 
d  
dH dz 2g dH
   
dL dL dL dL

dH
 slope of energy line
dL

dz
 change in elevation head
dL

So for downslope

-So for upslope

dH
  Sf ( friction slope )
dL

Hence,

dH
 Sf  So 
dL

dz
dL (-)

z
(+)

dz
dL

dH
 So  S f downslope
dL
 dH
  So  S f upslope
dL

Pressure distribution along a drip irrigation line :

a. Upslope

H’
(
a

Pres. Head, H b

c
H

Length ratio, i = l/L

b. downslope

H’
(
a

Pres. Head, H b

c
H

Length ratio, i = l/L

 where
a : pressure loss by slope
b : pressure loss by friction
c : final pressure distribution

The pressure variation in the two (2) figures may be written as :

H i  H n  H i  H i'
Hi = pressure expressed as a hydrostatic head at a given length ratio, i
Hn = inlet pressure
H’ = pressure head, gain or loss by slopes
(-) for downslope
(+) for upslope

With pressure drop ratio,

H i
Ri 
H

And the pressure head, gain (or loss) ratio by slopes :

H i'
Ri
'

H '

The above equation becomes

Hi  H  Ri H  Ri'H '

H = total pressure head drop by friction

H’ = total pressure head gain (or loss) by slopes

Emitter flow variation and uniformity coefficient of emitter flow :

q = keHx

Log q
Slope = x
 Substituting the value of H in the above equation gives :

q  ke H  Rii H  Ri'H ' 

x

Three (3) ways of evaluating the emitter flow variation :

1. use of Coefficient Uniformity (C.U.)

q
C.U .  1 
q

q  mean emitter flow

 q  mean absolute deviation from the emitter flow

2. Variation in emitter flow

qmax  qmin q
qvar   1 o
qmax qn
3. Emission uniformity, EU

0.8Cv
EU  1
n 0.5

Or

 1.27 Q
EU  100 1.0  Cv  min
 Ne  Qave
 

Design of Drip Irrigation system

1. Emitter selection
 - given by the manufacturer

Required emitter flowrate :

qt I i
qr 
I t Ei N

qt = water required / plant (li/day)

Ii = irrigation interval (days)
It = irrigation time per set (hr)
Ei = irrigation application efficiency (80 –90%)
N = number of emitters / plant

2. Lateral design

(3) types of lateral design problems :

a. lateral length is unknown but pipe size is constrained

b. pipe size is unknown but pipe length is constrained
c. neither pipe size nor length is given

Type I Problem :

The objective is to determine the maximum lateral length which can be utilized by the
given pipe size while maintaining a specific uniformity value. The maximum length of the
lateral is computed for the given conditions using the required pipe size. The allowable energy
losses can be computed using a graph of discharge variation vs. pressure (Fig. 16.10 p. 679,
Jensen) and the following equations :
1
Po  q x
a)   o  ; P  H
Pn  qn 

1
P   qr  q  x
b)d ) Po H   oPn ;   2H o Po
 Pn  ke o q
n 
 
n

1
q  x
c) Pn  Po  n 
 qo 
 e) H  Hn  Ho  So L

0.65
 CS 
f ) L  1.70 H 0.35 1.71
D    for N  20
 100 qr 

where

P = pressure, kPa
q = emitter flow rate, li/hr
 = sp. gravity of water, (9.81 kN/m³)
H = pressure head, m
H = pipe friction energy loss, m
D = pipe diameter, mm
S = emitter spacing, m
C = Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient
So = ground surface slope ((+) for downslope ; (-) for upslope)
L = lateral length, m
n = subscript, head end of the lateral
o = subscript, end of lateral
Pn = inlet pressure ; Po = outlet pressure
Hn = inlet pressure head ; Ho = pressure head at the end of lateral
qn = inlet discharge ; qo = discharge at the end of lateral
qr = required emitter flow rate, li/hr

Sample Problem :

Find the length of a 14.7 mm  I.D. drip irrigation lateral. A tree loop will be placed at
each tree spaced 10 m apart with four (4) emitters on each loop. The required emitter flow rate is
4 li/h, emitter flow function is

0.8
P
q  0.63  
 

and ground slope is 1.0%. A C.U. of 95% is desired.

Solution :

 consider each loop as an emitter with a flow function of

0.8
P
q  4 .63  
 
 and the required emitter flow rate will be

qr  4  4 li

  16
li
 hr  hr

From Fig. 16.10 :

qvar

20

95
CU
qmax  qmin qr  qo
qvar  
qmax qr

qo qn 1 1
0 .2  1  or    1.25
qr qo x 0.8

1.25
 16
Po  0.80  9.81  2.0  0.83  96 kPa
 2.52 

P 120
HPn  96n  1.21.25  120
12.2kPa
m
 

1
Po  1  0.8
    0.80
Pn  1.2 

Po 96
Ho    9 .7 m
 
 As given in the problem :

D = 14.7 mm
C = 130
S = 10 m
q = 16 li/hr

H = Hn – Ho + SoL

H = 12.2 – 9.7 + (0.01) L

H = 2.5 + 0.01L

 130  10 
L  1.70 2.5  0.01L   14.7 
0.35 1.71

 100  16 

L  147.21 2.5  0.01 L 

0.35

Solve by trial and error method (using old models of calculators or outright solutions
using programmable calculators):

Trial L (m)
1 220
2 252
3 259
4 260

Use L = 260 m

Problem:

A 75-m long lateral carries 75 equally spaced emitters, with the first emitter one (1) meter
from the inlet. The average emitter discharge is 4 L/h, the inlet pressure equals 1 atm (101.325
kpa = 10.33 m) at an elevation of 17.3 m, the end of the lateral is at an elevation of 16.1 m. Find
the diameter for cu= 96% (qvar=15%) and c=130. The available pipe diameters are:

12mm I.D. 20mm I.D. 32mm I.D.

16mm I.D. 25mm I.D. 40mm I.D.
 x = 0.5

Solution:
L L
q r =( 4 ) ( 75 ) =300
h h
slope=0 . 016 ⊕

Hazen-Williams Equation:

[ ]
1. 852
−4 . 865 100 Q
ΔH =0 . 628 L D . Fc
C
qo qo qo qn
q var =1− ⇒ 0 .15=1− ⇒ =0 . 85 or =1 .18
qn qn qn qo

()
Po qo 2 H o
= = ; H n =10 . 0 m ( 1 atm )
Pn q n Hn

() ()
2
H o qo qo 2
= ⇒ H o =( H n ) =7 . 2m
H n qn qn

ΔH =H o −H n=10 . 0−7 .2=2. 8 m [ allowable head loss at level ground ]

[ ]
1. 852
−4 . 865 100 Q
ΔH =0 . 628 L D . Fc
C

where
+√
1 1 a−1
F c= + ; a=1. 852
a+1 2 N 6 N 2
N=
of outlets
F c=
1
+
1
+
√ 1. 852−1 ⇒ F =0 . 3573
c
1 . 852+ 1 2 (75 ) 6 ( 75 )2

ΔH should not be greater than 2.8m.

Try any of the available pipe sizes, say D=12mm.

[ ]
1. 852
−4 . 865 ( 100 ) (300 )
ΔH =( 0 . 628 ) ( 75 ) (12 ) ( 0 .3573 )
130
ΔH =2 .25 m<2 . 8 m ∴ ok .
Try D=16mm

ΔH ⇒ 0 .56 m ⇒ ∴ choose D=12 mm

For sloping ground: [upslope/downslope]

17 . 3 m−16 .1
Slope= =0 .016 or 1. 6 %
75

ΔH =2.8+ ( 0.016 ) ( 75 )=4.0 m ( upslope ) ← use D=16 mm since ΔH = 2.25m

and still lesser than 4.0m (allowable)

ΔH =2.8−( 0.016 ) ( 75 )=1.6 m ( downslope )