PHYSICS

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
(LDR)

BY:
Dafne
Kara
Smrithi
Swathika
Pragasida
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is our privilege to express our sincerest regards to our respected Principal,

Mr. John Dinakaran, for his valuable inputs, able guidance, encouragement,
whole-hearted cooperation and constructive criticism throughout the duration
of our project.

I extend my appreciation to Ms. A. Angeline Rita, our Physics teacher who

guided me to the successful completion of this project. I take this opportunity
to express my deep sense of gratitude to her invaluable guidance, on-going
encouragement, enormous motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all
stages of project development.

I would like to thank my parents and all other family members for their timely
encouragements, and love during the course of the project development.

Lastly, I would like to thank my classmates and friends for their cooperation
and support throughout the year.
 INDEX
SL.NO TOPIC PG.NO

1. Aim 4
2. Introduction 5
3. Principle 6
4. Materials Required 7
5. Description of components 8
6. Circuit Diagram 12
7. Working 13
8. Procedure 16
9. Observation & Calculation 17
10. Conclusion 19
11. Bibliography 23
ABSTRACT:

The general-purpose photoconductive cell is also known as LDR

(light dependent resistor). It is a type of semiconductor and its conductivity
changes with proportional change in the intensity of light. There are two
common types of materials used to manufacture the photoconductive cells.
They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a ground state energy
closer to the conduction band - since the electrons don't have as far to
jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. Two of its earliest
applications were as part of smoke and fire detection systems and camera
light metres. The structure is covered with a glass sheet to protect it from
moisture and dust and allows only light to fall on it.
AIM:
To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing a
LDR, because of a variation: -
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate the LDR
(Keeping all the lamp at a fixed distance)
(b) The distance of incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to eliminate
LDR
INTRODUCTION:
Welcome to our project, where we delve into the fascinating world
of electrical circuits and the behavior of current flow. Specifically, we
focus on studying the variations of current flowing in a circuit that
incorporates a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR). The LDR is an electronic
component whose resistance changes with the intensity of light falling on
it. By incorporating this unique property into our circuit, we aim to
understand and analyze the impact of light on the flow of electric current.
Through meticulous experimentation, we will observe and record the
behavior of the LDR within the circuit under different lighting conditions.
By manipulating the light source, we can explore a wide range of
scenarios, from bright illumination to complete darkness, and everything in
between.
This will enable us to gather comprehensive data on how the LDR's
resistance evolves in response to changing light levels, and ultimately, how
these variations impact the current flowing through the circuit. Our project
encompasses both theoretical analysis and practical implementation. We
will draw upon established electrical theories and concepts to predict the
expected behavior of the circuit. Additionally, we will construct a physical
circuit incorporating the LDR, ensuring accuracy and reliability in our
experimental measurements. Through meticulous data collection and
analysis, we aim to validate our predictions and draw meaningful
conclusions about the relationship between light and current flow.
PRINCIPLE:

This project is based on Light Dependent

Resistance (L.D.R.). Light Dependent Resistance [LDR] is a resistance, in
which opposing power of current depends on the presence vi quantity of
light present, i.e., the resistance of LDR increases or decreases, according
to quantity of light which falls on it.

If LDR places in darkness, the resistance of LDR increases and when light
falls on it, the resistance of LDR decreases and act as a conductor. Any
LDR in the presence of light and darkness changes its resistance is
depends on the different types of LDR.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:

1. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

2. Connecting Wires
3. Source of different power rating (bulbs)
4. Bulb Holder
5. Metre scale
6. Multi Meter
7. Battery
DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS:

1. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR):

A photoresistor is a passive component that decreases resistance

with respect to receiving luminosity on the component's sensitive surface.
The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increase in incident light
intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can
be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits and light-activated and dark-
activated switching circuits acting as a resistance semiconductor.

2. CONNECTING WIRES:

A wire is a flexible strand of metal, usually cylindrical. Wires are

used for establishing electrical conductivity between two devices of an
electrical circuit. They possess negligible resistance to the passage of
current. The wires are covered by an insulated coating of different colours.
The color codes are used to distinguish between neutral and ground, and
live wire, which differs from one country to another.
 3. BULBS:

A light bulb is a device that produces light from electricity. Light bulbs
turn the electricity to light by sending current through a thin wire called
filament. The filament is usually made of tungsten, a material that emits
light when electricity is passed through it. The emission of light is due to
the high resistance offered by the material tungsten.

4. BULB HOLDER:

Bulb holder is a device which mechanically supports and provides

electrical connections for a compatible electric lamp base. Sockets allow
bulb to be safely and conveniently replaced
 5. METRE SCALE:

A metre scale is a one-metre-long scale divided into 100 equal parts

where each part corresponds to 1 centimetre. And when we look further
into the depth of the markings on the scale, each centimetre is again
divided into 10 equal parts where each part corresponds to 1 millimetre. It
is used to measure the distance.

6. MULTI METER:

Multimeter is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical

properties. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, resistance,
and current, in which case can be used as a voltmeter, ammeter,
and ohmmeter. Some feature the measurement of additional properties
such as temperature and capacitance.
 7. BATTERY:

A battery is a source of electric power consisting of one or

more electrochemical cells with external connections for
powering electrical devices. When a battery is supplying power, its
positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The
terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through
an external electric circuit to the positive terminal.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WORKING:

1. LDR and its characteristics:

When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it
excites an electron from the valence band and conduction band. Due to
such new electrons coming up in the conduction band area, the electrical
resistance of the device decreases. Thus, the LDR or photo-conductive
transducer has the resistance which is the inverse function of radiation
intensity. λ0= h.c/ e.Eω λ0 = threshold wavelength, in
metres. e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs Eω= work function of
the metal used, in Ev

2. Characteristics of photoconductive cells :

Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is
called dark resistance. This resistance is typically of the order of ohms,
depending on the intensity of light falling on it. The spectral response
characteristics of two commercial cells were compared in our laboratory.
And we found that there is almost no response to the radiation of a
wavelength shorter than 300 nm. It was very interesting to note that the
Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or within the green
color of the spectrum within a range of 520 nm. Thus, it can be used nearer
to the infra-red region up to 750 nm. It was found that the maximum
response of Cadmium Sulfoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615
nm and also it can be used in the infra-red region up to about 970 nm.

3.Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of a photodetector is the relationship between the light
falling on the device and the resulting output signal. In the case of a
photocell, one is dealing with the relationship between the incident light
and the corresponding resistance of the cell.
 4.Spectral Response:
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a
photoconductive cell is dependent on the wavelength (color) of the
incident light. Each photoconductor material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the relative response of the photocell
versus wavelength of light.
LDR SYMBOL:
The LDR symbol used in electronic circuits is based around the resistor
circuit symbol, but shows the light, in the form of arrows shining on it. In
this way it follows the same convention used for photodiode and
phototransistor circuit symbols where arrows are used to show the light
falling on these components.
PROCEDURE:
1. Choose a specific position for the source and mount it using a holder,
make sure it is stable.
2. select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect it to the
holder as shown in the figure
3. Connect the LDR, battery (6) and the multi meter in series.
4. Set the multi meter to the ohm section and select a suitable range and
measure the resistance with a bulb on.
5. similarly switch to the current section and move to micro ampere in
the multi meter. This gives the value of the current.
Repeat these steps with different power sources at different distances and
note down the observations.
OBSERVATIONS:
1) 15 watts (yellow) (wavelength = 570m):

Serial No Resistance
Distance (kilo ohm)
Current (micro
From Source
ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 142.5 40

2. 40 69 80

3. 30 41 150

4. 20 21
300

2) 15 watts (incandescent) (wavelength = 610nm):

Serial No Resistance (kilo ohm)
Distance
Current (micro
From Source
ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 51 120

2. 40 35 170

3. 30 22 270

4. 20 11 540
3) 40 Watt (incandescent) (wavelength = 610nm) :
Serial No Resistance (kilo ohm)
Distance
Current (micro
From Source
ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 20 300

2. 40 13 460

3. 30 8.5 700

4. 20 4.5 1330

4) 20 Watt (CFL) (white light)

Serial No Resistance
Distance (kilo ohm)
Current (micro
From Source
ampere)
(cm)

1. 50 15.5 380

2. 40 10 600

3. 30 6 1000

4. 20 3 2000
CONCLUSION:

• The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of light and

hence there is an increase in the flow of current.

• There is an increase in the current as the distance from the source

decreases.

• The intensity decreases as the distance from the source increases

• The error lies within the experimental limit.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
• The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source. Connections may
be faulty.
• The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
• Measurements should be taken accurately.
APPLICATIONS:
Lead sulphide (PS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs are used for the
mid infrared spectral region. GeCu photoconductors are among the best far
infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and
infrared spectroscopy.

1) Analog Applications

 Camera Exposure Control

 Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
 Photocopy Machines - density of toner
 Colorimetric Test Equipment
 Densitometer
 Electronic Scales - dual cell
 Automatic Gain Control - modulated light source
 Automated Rear View Mirror

2) Digital Applications

 Automatic Headlight Dimmer

 Night Light Control
 Oil Burner Flame Out
 Street Light Control

USES:
• It can be used in street lights.
• It can be used in mines areas.
• It can be used in hilly areas.
• By using laser, it can be used for safety purposes.
• It can be used in frontier areas. It can be used in houses.
• It can be used in jail light
ADVANTAGES:
• Collection of parts of the circuit are easily available.
• Accuracy of this circuit is more than accuracy of other
• circuits.
• By using laser, it can be used for security purposes.
• It can be used to stop the wastage of electricity.
• The cost of circuit is low. This circuit saves the men’s power.
BIBLIOGRAPGHY:

1. NCERT physics class XII

2. Art of Electronics ov paul horowitz
3. www.wikipedia.com/
4. www.electronics2000.co.uk/links/education-hobby/
5. www.ecelab.com/