sustainability

Article
Sustainability Assessment of Using Recycled
Aggregates in Concrete Block Pavements
Md Mizanur Rahman * , Simon Beecham , Asif Iqbal, Md Rajibul Karim
and Abu Taher Zillur Rabbi
Geotechnical Engineering, University of South Australia, UniSA STEM, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia;
simon.beecham@unisa.edu.au (S.B.); asif.iqbal@mymail.unisa.edu.au (A.I.);
rajibul.karim@unisa.edu.au (M.R.K.); zillur.rabbi@mymail.unisa.edu.au (A.T.Z.R.)
* Correspondence: mizanur.rahman@unisa.edu.au




Received: 26 April 2020; Accepted: 22 May 2020; Published: 25 May 2020


Abstract: The mechanistic design of a concrete block pavement (CBP) can be very complicated
and often requires the use of computer programs. This paper presents a new mechanistic-empirical
method, which is implemented in a computer program (DesignPave) that calculates base
course/sub-base thicknesses for a range of design inputs such as traffic load, interlocking properties,
and material stiffness. A range of virgin and recycled unbound granular materials were also
experimentally tested to characterize them for possible use as base course or sub-base materials.
Combining the new mechanistic-empirical method and the range of base course/sub-base course
materials (virgin and recycled aggregates), it was found that while a CBP containing recycled
aggregates did not offer a significant direct financial benefit based on the characteristics or material
costs, the associated environmental benefits were very high.

Keywords: concrete block pavements; mechanistic design; recycled aggregates; eco-efficiency

1. Introduction
Segmental paving has been in use since the 18th century when stone setts quarried from granite,
basalt, sandstone, or limestone were used in paving operations [1–3]. Because of the high cost of stone
and, to some extent, to reduce some of the noise issues related to stone block pavement, the use of
vitrified brick pavements started in the early 19th century in Europe, particularly in Germany and the
Netherlands [4,5]. A major development in concrete block pavement (CBP) technology came in the
mid-20th century in Europe when increased mechanization and automation in the production of
concrete block pavements proved to be beneficial in terms of cost-effectiveness compared to the other
form of segmental pavements. This led to the adaptation of CBP technology in America, South Africa,
Australia, New Zealand, and Japan [4].
CBP differs from other forms of concrete pavement in that it comprises a layer of rigid paving
blocks, which can be either pervious or impervious, laid either on a sand or fine-gravel bedding
course [6]. CBPs are commonly used in road and industrial applications. They are often treated as a
form of flexible pavement. However, there are behavioral differences, for example, the joints of these
pavers create an “inter-locking” action and become stiffer and stronger with the progression of loading.
Thus, the concepts and design principles for flexible pavements cannot be directly adapted for CBPs,
and modifications are needed. This paper describes a new mechanistic-empirical method for the CBP
design and its implementation into a computer program called DesignPave [7].
There are existing research and ongoing practices of using recycled aggregates substituting
the virgin materials, which validates the applicability of using recycled aggregates in roads
and pavements [8–10]. This article, rather than justifying the applicability of this substitution,

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313; doi:10.3390/su12104313 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 2 of 17

evaluates the sustainability of using recycled aggregate by applying this new mechanistic-empirical
method for the CBP design. The recycled materials are essentially the construction and demolition
waste (CDW), which is processed in the recycling facility to prepare as road aggregates, containing
various sizes of screened stone and rock [9,11]. The virgin road aggregates generally consist of 20 mm
crushed rocks with fines, extracted from a quarry [11]. A large variety of recycled and virgin unbound
granular materials for base course and sub-base use were characterized in the geotechnical laboratory
at the University of South Australia. This provided material design parameters for both recycled
and virgin base course/sub-base material that could be used in the evaluation of the economic and
environmental benefits of using recycled aggregates. A case study of a 7000 m2 area of CBP, which
was designed using this new mechanistic-empirical method and constructed using a virgin base
course in 2016, was evaluated for economic and environmental benefits with different grades of
recycled aggregate.
In terms of the sustainability of using different materials, a series of scenarios has also been
considered to investigate the effects of different parameters such as aggregate source (recycled/virgin)
of the base course/sub-base material under specific traffic loads and subgrade strengths.

2. Methodology
A number of mechanistic-empirical methodologies for CBP have been developed, and many of
these have been implemented in computer programs [12–14]. The mechanistic-empirical methodologies
for CBP are different than a flexible pavement (for example bituminous layers) [15]. The notable
differences are:

• The deflection tolerance of bituminous layers in a flexible pavement structure is usually very small
(to limit fatigue cracking), whereas CBPs can tolerate movements up to 2 mm without showing
distress [15,16].
• CBPs tend to interlock during the initial period of use after construction which improves their
performance [12,17,18]. Modification of the vertical elastic modulus of concrete block paving layer
over the course of its early life is also considered in CBPs [15,19].
• The conventional use of axle load equivalences (widely used in a flexible pavement) is deliberately
avoided in the CBP, and instead, actual traffic spectrum loads are used.

The mechanistic-empirical design methodology and its implementation in freely available software,
DesignPave, is briefly described below, including its use for evaluating the sustainability of CBP
systems that include recycled aggregates.

2.1. Mechanistic Design Methodology Implemented in DesignPave

The algorithm for the mechanistic-empirical design method in DesignPave is presented
schematically in Figure 1. The process can be explained using the following four steps: defining
traffic load; choice of pavement layer system and material parameters in each layer; calculation of
stresses and strains at the top of the semi-infinite subgrade layer; and application of the damage law
for the design equivalent standard axle (ESA) load or traffic spectrum via Miner’s rule. These steps are
discussed in detail below.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 3 of 17
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Road pavement design

(ESA-Based)

Traffic data,
NDT / AADT

Nunber of ESA Step 1: Defining traffic

repetitions load

Design ESA

Layer System (Base / Base

with sub-base / Base with
stabilised sub-base) Step 2: Choice of layer
system and material
Material properties parameter
(Subgrade CBR, Layer thickness,
Elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio)

Equivalent thickness of the multi-

layered system (Odemark 1949)

Vertical and radial stresses at various Step 3: Calculation of

depths (Boussinesq’s equation) stresses and strains

Vertical strain (top of subgrade) & radial

strain (bottom of stabilized sub-base)

Rutting/Fatigue
criteria

Damage calculation
Step 4: Application of
damage law
Increase
thickness If
N Damage<1

Design depth

Figure 1. DesignPave flow chart for estimating base course/sub-base depths for different pavement
Figure 1. DesignPave flow chart for estimating base course/sub-base depths for different pavement
materials under various traffic loading conditions. ESA: Equivalent Standard Axle, AADT: Annual
materials under various traffic loading conditions. ESA: Equivalent Standard Axle, AADT: Annual
Average Daily Traffic, CBR: California Bearing Ratio.
Average Daily Traffic, CBR: California Bearing Ratio.
2.1.1. Defining Traffic Load
2.1.1. Defining Traffic Load
The first step in the process is the estimation of the total number of vehicle axle group repetitions
Thedesign
over the first step
lifein(N
the process is the estimation of the total number of vehicle axle group repetitions
DT ). This can be a direct input by the user, or it can be calculated using the
over the design life (N DT). This can be a direct input by the user, or it can be calculated using the
following equation, as proposed by Austroads [20]:
following equation, as proposed by Austroads [20]:
HV
 
NDT = 365 × AADT × DF × % × LDF × CGF × NHVAG (1)
𝐻𝑉 100
𝑁 = 365 × 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇 × 𝐷𝐹 × % × 𝐿𝐷𝐹 × 𝐶𝐺𝐹 × 𝑁 (1)
where AADT is the Annual Average Daily Traffic, 100DF is the direction factor (proportion of two-way
traffic travelling in the direction of the design lane), %HV is the average percentage of heavy vehicles,
where AADT is the Annual Average Daily Traffic, DF is the direction factor (proportion of two-way
LDF is the land distribution factor (proportion of heavy vehicles in the design lane), CGF is the
traffic travelling in the direction of the design lane), %HV is the average percentage of heavy vehicles,
cumulative growth factor, and NHVAG is the average number of axle groups per heavy vehicle.
LDF is the land distribution factor (proportion of heavy vehicles in the design lane), CGF is the
cumulative growth factor, and NHVAG is the average number of axle groups per heavy vehicle.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 4 of 17

(1+0.01R)P −1
According to Austroads [20], CGF = 0.01R for R > 0, where R is the annual growth rate expressed
(1+0.01R)P −1
as a percentage and P is the design period in years. According to Austroads [20], CGF = 0.01R
for R > 0, where R is the annual growth rate expressed as a percentage and P is the design period in
years. It is assumed that CGF = P for R = 0. Either traffic load distribution or ESA can be used as
a form of traffic load in practice, and thus both are implemented in the algorithm to compare their
influence on the design. For this article, ESA was used for traffic load, and design ESA (DESA) was
calculated by multiplying NDT with ESA/heavy vehicle axle groups (HVAG), i.e., indirectly adjusting
damage on the pavement due to the axle groups of a traffic load distribution. The influence of traffic
spectra on pavement damage was not a part of this study, although this is described elsewhere [21].

2.1.2. Pavement Layer System and Material Properties

The pavement layers in a CBP typically consist of 60–120 thick concrete block pavers, under which
lies a 20–30 mm thick bedding sand layer. For permeable pavement systems, the bedding sand is
typically replaced by 2–6 mm bedding gravel. Below this lies a base course gravel layer of minimum
depth 100 mm, and there may also be a sub-base course or a stabilized base course over the subgrade
layer, depending on the traffic loading conditions, design life, and California bearing ratio (CBR) of
the subgrade. The details of the pavement layer system and material properties used in this study
are discussed in the following section. The choice of layers is important in the implementation of
a mechanistic-empirical design method as it affects the stresses and strains at the subgrade layer.

2.1.3. Calculation of Stresses and Strains

Solutions for stresses in a homogenous half-space were developed by Boussinesq [22] for a point
load at the surface. The solutions were then extended for circular wheel loads. The stresses and strains
under the centre of the wheel load can be represented by the following equations, which were adopted
in DesignPave [21]:  
z3
σz = P
 
3/2
− 1 (2)
(a2 + z2 )
P  2z(1 + ν)
 
z3
σr = σt = 

− − ( 1 + 2ν )  (3)
2 (a2 + z2 )1/2 (a2 + z2 )3/2

1
εz = [σz − ν(σr + σt )] (4)
E
1
εr = [σr − ν(σt + σz )] (5)
E
where a is the radius of the circular loading area, p is the contact pressure, z is the depth below the surface,
and ν is the Poisson ratio. The vertical, radial, and tangential stresses are σz , σr , and σt , respectively,
and εz , εr , and εt are the vertical, radial, and tangential strains, respectively. Equations (2) and (3) are
not directly applicable to multi-layered systems. To overcome this, the equivalent thickness method
(ETM), as presented by Odemark [23], was adopted, which is shown in the equation:
s
1 − ν2m
0.33
E

heq = nhi i 3
(6)
Em 1 − ν2i

where n = 0.90, νi , and νm are the Poisson’s ratios of the top layer and half-space, respectively, hi is the
thickness of the top layer, and Ei and Em are the vertical elastic moduli of the top layer and half-space,
respectively. The applicability Equations (2), (4) and (6) were verified by comparing calculated stresses
and strains at the top of the subgrade layer of a pavement system consisting of the paver, bedding sand,
base course, and subgrade layers with a finite element method (FEM) simulation. The results of this
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

where n = 0.90,  , and  are the Poisson’s ratios of the top layer and half-space, respectively, hi is
the thickness of the top layer, and Ei and Em are the vertical elastic moduli of the top layer and half-
space, respectively. The applicability Equations (2), (4) and (6) were verified by comparing calculated
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 5 of 17
stresses and strains at the top of the subgrade layer of a pavement system consisting of the paver,
bedding sand, base course, and subgrade layers with a finite element method (FEM) simulation. The
results of this
comparison arecomparison are shown
shown in Figure 2. Thein Figure
strains 2. The strains
calculated by thecalculated
ETM wereby the ETM
slightly were
higher slightly
than those
higher thanusing
computed thosethecomputed using
FEM, which the FEM,
gives which
a slightly gives a slightly
conservative conservative
pavement thicknesspavement thickness
via damage laws.
via damage laws.

Comparison of vertical strains at the bottom of a 100 mm base course layer for two California
Figure 2. Comparison
Bearing Ratio (CBR) values.
values. FEM: Finite Element Method; ETM: Equivalent Thickness Method.

2.1.4. Damage Laws to Estimate the Life of the Pavement

2.1.4. Damage laws to estimate the life of the pavement
The unbound granular materials present in the pavement structure are assumed to fail due
The unbound granular materials present in the pavement structure are assumed to fail due to the
to the gradual accumulation of permanent rutting deformation in the subgrade layer. The fatigue
gradual accumulation of permanent rutting deformation in the subgrade layer. The fatigue life of
life of bound layers is correlated with the maximum horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
bound layers is correlated with the maximum horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the layer, and
layer, and the permanent deformation fatigue life of the subgrade is correlated with the maximum
the permanent deformation fatigue life of the subgrade is correlated with the maximum vertical
vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade layer. Various methods can be used to relate
compressive strain at the top of the subgrade layer. Various methods can be used to relate the
the magnitude of these strains to the number of strain repetitions that a pavement can carry before
magnitude of these strains to the number of strain repetitions that a pavement can carry before failing
failing [24]. The following equation, recommended by Edwards and Valkering (1974), was used to
[24]. The following equation, recommended by Edwards and Valkering (1974), was used to relate
relate pavement permanent deformation with calculated strain [25]:
pavement permanent deformation with calculated strain [25]:
ε = 2.8 × 10−2 × N−0.25 (7)
𝜀 = 2.8 × 10 × 𝑁 . (7)
where, ε is the permissible subgrade compressive strain and N is the number of strain repetitions.
where, 𝜀 is the permissible subgrade compressive strain and N is the number of strain repetitions.
For bound materials, the following fatigue criterion was adopted from Austroads [20].
For bound materials, the following fatigue criterion was adopted from Austroads [20].
  12
 113000/E 0.804 + 191 
113000 ⁄𝐸 . + 191  (8)
𝑁 = 𝑅𝐹
N = RF (8)


 𝜇𝜀 µε 

where N
where repetitions, E is the vertical elastic modulus of the cemented
N is the allowable number of load repetitions,
material
material in MPa,µεμε
inMPa, is the load-induced
is the tensile
load-induced strainstrain
tensile (microstrain) at the base
(microstrain) of base
at the the cemented material,
of the cemented
and RF is the reliability for cemented material fatigue. These fatigue criteria are valid for
material, and RF is the reliability for cemented material fatigue. These fatigue criteria are valid for cemented
materials
cementedwith vertical
materials withelastic moduli
vertical varying
elastic modulifrom 2000 to
varying 10,000
from 2000MPa.
to 10,000 MPa.
For ESA-based designs, strains are calculated under a standard axle (a single axle dual tire
configuration carrying 80 kN load). Calculated maximum strains from relevant layers are then used
with the fatigue laws, and the actual life of the pavement is calculated in terms of ESA. This calculated
life (in terms of ESA) is then compared with the design life. If the actual life is lower than the design
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 6 of 17
with the fatigue laws, and the actual life of the pavement is calculated in terms of ESA. This calculated
life (in terms of ESA) is then compared with the design life. If the actual life is lower than the design
life, the process is repeated with a higher thickness of the target layer. The thickness is incremented
life, the process is repeated with a higher thickness of the target layer. The thickness is incremented
until a satisfactory design is achieved.
until a satisfactory design is achieved.
2.2. Pavement Layer System and Material Properties
2.2. Pavement Layer System and Material Properties
2.2.1. Pavement Layer System
2.2.1. Pavement Layer System
A pavement layer system, as presented in Table 1, was used for calculating the design thickness of
A pavement
the base layer
course and system,layers.
sub-base as presented in Table
A specific traffic1,load used =
was (ESA 6 ) on the pavement
for10calculating the designalong
thickness
with
of the base course and sub-base layers. A specific traffic load (ESA = 10 6) on the pavement along with
specific subgrade CBR (either 2% or 4%) was considered for the analysis, while base course/sub-base
specific
materialssubgrade CBR (either
were varied 2%the
and thus or 4%) wasmodulus
elastic considered for base
of the the analysis, while base
course/sub-base course/sub-base
layers was varied
materials were
accordingly. Anvaried and thus
illustration of thethe elastic
layer modulus
system of the in
is presented base course/sub-base
Figure 3. layers was varied
accordingly. An illustration of the layer system is presented in Figure 3.
Table 1. Properties of different layers in the pavement structure containing base course and base course
Tablesub-base.
with 1. Properties of different layers in the pavement structure containing base course and base
course with sub-base.
Layers Typical Thickness (mm) Elastic Modulus (MPa) Poison’s Ratio
Layers Typical Thickness (mm) Elastic Modulus (MPa) Poison’s Ratio
Paver 80 (for vehicle loading) 3200 0.3
Paver 80 (for vehicle loading) 3200 0.3
Bedding
Beddingsandsand 20
20 200
200 0.350.35
Base
Basecourse
course Tobe
To becalculated
calculated*/100
*/100 Varying/350
Varying/350 0.350.35
Sub-base
Sub-base To be calculated **
To be calculated ** Varying
Varying 0.350.35
Subgrade Semi infinite 40 0.40
Subgrade Semi infinite 40 0.40
* When calculating base course thickness for the pavement with a granular layer; ** 100 mm base
* When calculating base course thickness for the pavement with a granular layer; ** 100 mm base course thickness
course thickness
with a vertical with
elastic a vertical
modulus elastic
of 350 modulus
MPa was of 350
used with MPa was used with a sub-base.
a sub-base.

Figure 3. System layers considered for estimating design thickness: granular base course and granular
Figure 3. System layers considered for estimating design thickness: granular base course and granular
base course with sub-base.
base course with sub-base.
2.2.2. Properties of Recycled Aggregates
2.2.2. Properties of Recycled Aggregates
This study was focused on assessing the sustainability of concrete block pavements by comparing
the use of study
This was focused
two recycled on assessing
aggregates (RA). These theaggregates
sustainability
were of concrete
denoted block to
according pavements by
their source,
comparing the use of two recycled aggregates (RA). These aggregates were
namely Adelaide Resource Recovery (ARR), ResourceCo (RCO), and one virgin aggregate (VA) (20 mm denoted according to
their
crushedsource,
rock namely
with fines Adelaide
sourcedResource Recovery (ARR),
from a commercial quarry ResourceCo
in Adelaide).(RCO),
Theseand one virgin
materials were
aggregate (VA) (20 mm crushed rock with fines sourced from a commercial quarry
characterized in detail in the geotechnical laboratory at the University of South Australia [16,17]. in Adelaide).
TheseThematerials werewere
aggregates characterized in detail
class 1 (nominal sizein20
themm)
geotechnical
materials,laboratory at the University
which is suitable of South
for pavements that
Australia [16,17]. 6
can bear heavy traffic loads (≥5 × 10 ESA) [20]. All the materials were well-graded gravel with sand
The
to silty aggregates
gravel (GW-GM) were class 1 (nominal
according size 20
to the Unified Soilmm) materials,System
Classification which (USCS).
is suitable
Eachformaterial
pavements
was
that
passedcanthrough
bear heavya 20traffic loads (≥
mm splitter to 5x10
6 ESA)
provide [20]. All the
a consistent materials
sample were
and the well-graded
samples gravel with
were prepared in
sand to silty gravel (GW-GM) according to the Unified Soil Classification System
accordance with Australian Standards. As per the particle size distributions (PSDs) shown in Figure 4, (USCS). Each
material
the VA had wasslightly
passed more
through a 20
fines mm than
(11%) splitter
thetorecycled
provideaggregates
a consistent(5%
sample
and 7%andfortheARR
samples
and were
RCO
prepared in accordance with Australian Standards. As per the particle size
materials, respectively). All the tested aggregates satisfied the recommended PSDs proposed by thedistributions (PSDs)
shown in Figure 4,Department
South Australian the VA hadof slightly more
Planning, fines (11%)
Transport andthan the recycled
Infrastructure aggregates
(DPTI) [26]. (5% and 7% for
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 7 of 17

ARR and RCO materials, respectively). All the tested aggregates satisfied the recommended PSDs
proposed by the South Australian Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (DPTI) [26].

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

ARR and RCO materials, respectively). All the tested aggregates satisfied the recommended PSDs
proposed by the South Australian Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (DPTI) [26].

Figure 4.4.Particle
Figure Particlesize distribution
size of the
distribution of tested aggregates
the tested compared
aggregates with thewith
compared Department of Planning,
the Department of
Transport
Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (DPTI) limits (source: data adopted from Gabr Aggregate;
and Infrastructure (DPTI) limits (source: data adopted from Gabr [27]). VA: Virgin [27]). VA:
ARR:
VirginAdelaide
Aggregate;Resource Recovery;Resource
ARR: Adelaide RCO: ResourceCo.
Recovery; RCO: ResourceCo.

DPTI PartFigureR15 4. Particle size distribution undrained

[28] recommended of the tested triaxial
aggregates compared
testing for with the Department
appraisal of recycled of products
DPTI Part R15 Transport
Planning, [28] recommended
and Infrastructureundrained
(DPTI) limitstriaxial
(source:testing for appraisal
data adopted from Gabrof[27]).
recycled
VA: products
for pavements. Therefore, undrained monotonic triaxial tests on specimens of 100 mm in diameter
for pavements. VirginTherefore,
Aggregate; ARR: undrained monotonic
Adelaide Resource triaxial
Recovery; RCO:tests on specimens of 100 mm in diameter
ResourceCo.
and 200 mm high were conducted following the methods stated in AS 1289.6.2.2 [29]. The specimens
and 200 mm high were conducted following the methods stated in AS 1289.6.2.2 [29]. The specimens
were prepared DPTI atPart
90%R15 and 60%
[28] optimum moisture
recommended undrained contents (OMCs)
triaxial testing and tested
for appraisal under products
of recycled three confining
were prepared
for
at 90%Therefore,
pavements.
and 60%undrainedoptimummonotonic
moisturetriaxial
contents tests
(OMCs)
on
and tested
specimens of 100
under
mm in
three confining
diameter
stresses, namely σr of 25 kPa, 50 kPa, and 75 kPa to determine their total shear strength properties
stresses,and 200 mmσhigh
namely r of 25 kPa, 50 kPa,following
and 75 the kPamethods
to determine
stated in their total shear strength properties
(apparent cohesion, c, were
and angleconducted
of friction, φ) and elastic AS 1289.6.2.2
modulus. [29]. The
The tangential specimens
elastic moduli,
(apparent
were cohesion,
prepared c, andand
at 90% angle60%ofoptimum
friction,moisture
ϕ) andcontents
elastic (OMCs)
modulus. andThe testedtangential
under three elastic moduli, E,
confining
E, of these aggregates were determined at
σr ofdetermined
50% of the peak deviator stress. The E value was increased
of thesestresses,
aggregatesnamely were 25 kPa, 50 kPa, at and
50%75ofkPa thetopeak
determine their stress.
deviator total shearThestrength
E value properties
was increased
with increasing r , as shown
(apparentσcohesion, inangle
Figure 5. The Eϕ)values for recycled
modulus. aggregates were consistently
moduli, E, higher
with increasing σ c, and of friction, and elastic The tangential
r, as shown in Figure 5. The E values for recycled aggregates were consistently
elastic
than forofvirgin aggregates.
these aggregates wereAlthough
determined it at
is50%
not ofa common scenario
the peak deviator to have
stress. The E recycled
value wasaggregates
increased with
higher than for virgin aggregates. Although it is not a common scenario to have recycled aggregates
with increasing σ , as shown in Figure 5. The E values for recycled
higher elastic modulus, the elastic modulus of aggregates might differ depending on its characteristics.
r aggregates were consistently
with higher
higher elastic for modulus, the elastic modulus a of aggregates might
to havediffer depending on its
Irrespective ofthan
comparing virginthe aggregates.
moduli Although
between itvirgin
is not and common
recycledscenario
aggregates, recycled
the resultaggregates
here provided
characteristics.
with higher Irrespective
elastic modulus,of comparing
the elasticthe moduli
modulus of between
aggregatesvirginmight and differrecycled
depending aggregates,
on its the
a range of elastic modulus for recycled aggregates, which was used for further parametric study
result here provided Irrespective
characteristics. a range of of elastic modulus
comparing for recycled
the moduli betweenaggregates, which was
virgin and recycled used for
aggregates, the further
analysis. It ishere
result noteworthya to report that modulus
a series for of recycled
triaxial aggregates,
tests, including was repeat
usedload triaxial tests
parametric studyprovided
analysis. range of elastic
It is noteworthy to report that a series of which triaxial tests, for further
including repeat
(RLTTs),parametric
was donestudy by Gabr [27]
analysis. and
It is published
noteworthy elsewhere
to report that[30–32].
a series The
of reader
triaxial should
tests, also
including be aware that
repeat
load triaxial tests (RLTTs), was done by Gabr [27] and published elsewhere [30–32]. The reader
there areload
advanced models
triaxial tests for modulus
(RLTTs), was donethat depend
by Gabr [27] on
andmaterial
publisheddensity,
elsewhere confining
[30–32]. stress,
The readeroctahedral
should also be aware that there are advanced models for modulus that depend on material density,
should also
stress, matrix be aware
suction, etc.that there However,
[33,34]. are advanced models5for
Figure modulus that
represents dependapproach
a simple on material[28] density,
to estimate
confining stress,stress,
confining octahedral
octahedral stress, matrix
stress, matrixsuction, etc.[33,34].
suction, etc. [33,34]. However,
However, FigureFigure 5 represents
5 represents a simplea simple
the range of possible moduli.
approach [28] to[28]
approach estimate
to estimatethe the
rangerange of of
possible
possible moduli.
moduli.

a) a) 60% 60%
OMCOMC b)b) 90%90%
OMCOMC
R2=0.93
R2=0.93
Elastic moduli, E (MPa)

E (MPa)

R2=0.99
Elastic moduli, E (MPa)

E (MPa)

R2=0.99
moduli,

R2=0.41
moduli,

R2=0.41 R2=0.99
ElasticElastic

R2=0.99

R2=0.86 R2=0.06

R2=0.86 R2=0.06

Figure 5. Measured elastic moduli of different base course aggregates in relation to confining pressure
(a) for 60% optimum moisture contents (OMCs) and (b) for 90% OMC (source: Gabr [27]).
 the life cycles of aggregates from their production to installation in the pavement base course/sub-
base were assessed by adopting a “cradle-to-grave” approach. The life cycles of virgin and recycled
aggregates are shown in Figure 6 depicting the energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and costs
associated with each stage of the process. Natural aggregates, once extracted from the quarry and
processed, are ready to use in the road base/sub-base. Recycled aggregates are sourced from
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 8 of 17
construction and demolition waste. The construction waste material is processed in a recycling plant
before it is ready to be used as road base/sub-base aggregate. Approximately 20% of the construction
waste
2.3. is non-recyclable
Sustainability Analysis and is deposited
of Pavement in a landfill. If the construction and demolition wastes are
Design
not recycled, then all the material has to go to the landfill, which is subject to a high government levy
2.3.1.
as wellSustainability
as processingAnalysis
costs.
The
To assumptions
analyze in this liferatio
the benefit-cost cycle analysis
(BCR) (LCA)
of using includeaggregates
recycled the non-allowance forvirgin
in place of the variability
aggregates,
of the energy required for transporting materials from a source location to the destination.
the life cycles of aggregates from their production to installation in the pavement base course/sub-base Even
though the cost of transporting materials might vary depending on the conditions, estimating the
were assessed by adopting a “cradle-to-grave” approach. The life cycles of virgin and recycled
accurate transport cost is difficult. Therefore, a constant cost for transporting materials from one place
aggregates are shown in Figure 6 depicting the energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and costs
to another was assumed in this research. Another assumption was that the same energy was required
associated with each stage of the process. Natural aggregates, once extracted from the quarry and
for both virgin and recycled materials at processing facilities/stations. Although this is a very gross
processed, are ready to use in the road base/sub-base. Recycled aggregates are sourced from construction
assumption as the energy consumptions in the processing plants are highly variable, depending on
and demolition waste. The construction waste material is processed in a recycling plant before it is
the type of machinery used, it was compromised here in the life cycle assessment due to the lack of
ready to be used as road base/sub-base aggregate. Approximately 20% of the construction waste is
available data. In addition, the data were collected from a limited number of quarry and recycling
non-recyclable
facilities around andtheisworld.
deposited in a landfill.
However, despiteIfthese
the construction
assumptions, and
thisdemolition
LCA is ablewastes are not recycled,
to demonstrate the
then all the material has to go to the landfill, which is subject to a high
differences in resource consumption, and it can be used to assess the potential economic government levy as well
and as
processing
environmental costs.benefits of using recycled aggregates in pavements.
B Operation: A$33/t

A Energy: 27.8 MJ/t C Energy: 11.21 MJ/t Energy: 4.5 MJ/t

C Energy: 4.5 MJ/t
CO2: 2.5 kg/t CO2: 0.405 kg/t CO2: 0.405 kg/t CO2: 0.405 kg/t

Quarry Transport Processing plant Natural aggregate Transport

CO2: 1 kg/t Road base and sub-base

Energy: 4.5 MJ/t D Operation: A$24.6/t
CO2: 0.405 kg/t Energy: 11.21 MJ/t

Transport Processing plant Recycled aggregate Transport

E 20% to landfill
Energy: 4.5 MJ/t
Mixed construction Transport Energy: 4.5 MJ/t CO2: 0.405 kg/t
& demolition waste CO2: 0.405 kg/t

100% to landfill
Transport Landfill
F Energy: 1.12 MJ/t
Energy: 4.5 MJ/t Note: Transport energy required among facilities or to customers are assumed to be
the same and thus neutralizes one another. G Operation: 42 A$/t
CO2: 0.405 kg/t
Assumed that processing plant for both RA and VA consumes the same energy G Govt. levy: 20 A$/t
H CO emission factor (0.09 Kg/MJ): Assumed to be the same for all the processes
2
CO2: 0.143 kg/t

Figure 6. Life cycles of virgin and recycled aggregates and the associated costs in different phases.
Figure 6. Life cycles of virgin and recycled aggregates and the associated costs in different phases.
(Note: AA [35]; BB [36];C C [37]; D [38], [39]; E [40]; F calculated based on a processing plant [37], assuming
(Note: [35]; [36]; [37]; D [38], [39]; E [40]; F calculated basedGon a processing plant [37], assuming the
the energy requirement by the machinery in a landfill site; [39]; H [41].)
energy requirement by the machinery in a landfill site; G [39]; H [41].)

The assumptions in this life cycle analysis (LCA) include the non-allowance for the variability of
Based on the conducted LCA, both the use value and option value of resources were considered
the energy required for transporting materials from a source location to the destination. Even though
for calculating the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of using recycled aggregates in the pavement. The use
the cost of transporting materials might vary depending on the conditions, estimating the accurate
transport cost is difficult. Therefore, a constant cost for transporting materials from one place to another
was assumed in this research. Another assumption was that the same energy was required for both
virgin and recycled materials at processing facilities/stations. Although this is a very gross assumption
as the energy consumptions in the processing plants are highly variable, depending on the type of
machinery used, it was compromised here in the life cycle assessment due to the lack of available data.
In addition, the data were collected from a limited number of quarry and recycling facilities around
the world. However, despite these assumptions, this LCA is able to demonstrate the differences in
resource consumption, and it can be used to assess the potential economic and environmental benefits
of using recycled aggregates in pavements.
Based on the conducted LCA, both the use value and option value of resources were considered
for calculating the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of using recycled aggregates in the pavement. The use value
indicates the value derived from the physical use of a good [42], while the option value reflects the
Sustainability 2020, 12,
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313
x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
of 17
16

value indicates the value derived from the physical use of a good [42], while the option value reflects
potential source of benefit in the future, as opposed to the actual present use value [43]. The BCR is a
the potential source of benefit in the future, as opposed to the actual present use value [43]. The BCR
representation of the net benefits compared to the costs associated with any process [44]:
is a representation of the net benefits compared to the costs associated with any process [44]:
Value o f net bene f it
BCR = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡 (9)
𝐵𝐶𝑅 = Value o f net cost (9)
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
where, in this research, the net benefit accounts for the direct and indirect economic benefits of using
where, in this research, the net benefit accounts for the direct and indirect economic benefits of using
recycled aggregates, considering the use and option values of resources, respectively. The environmental
recycled aggregates, considering the use and option values of resources, respectively. The
benefit in the form of a potential reduction of CO2 emissions was also included in the net benefits.
environmental benefit in the form of a potential reduction of CO2 emissions was also included in the
The net cost accounts for the expenditure associated with the process.
net benefits. The net cost accounts for the expenditure associated with the process.
The use value considers the cost of the base course/sub-base aggregates and is the difference
The use value considers the cost of the base course/sub-base aggregates and is the difference
between the cost of using virgin and recycled aggregates. The option value represents the potential
between the cost of using virgin and recycled aggregates. The option value represents the potential
benefits that could be achieved in the form of the saved mining operation and land cost for not using
benefits that could be achieved in the form of the saved mining operation and land cost for not using
virgin aggregates, and from the saved landfill cost of the recycled construction materials. The difference
virgin aggregates, and from the saved landfill cost of the recycled construction materials. The
in emissions generated from the quarry and landfill site and that from the recycling site accounts for
difference in emissions generated from the quarry and landfill site and that from the recycling site
the net CO2 reduction (environmental benefit) for using recycled aggregates. A schematic diagram of
accounts for the net CO2 reduction (environmental benefit) for using recycled aggregates. A
how the use value, option value, and environmental benefits were calculated to estimate the BCR is
schematic diagram of how the use value, option value, and environmental benefits were calculated
shown in Figure 7.
to estimate the BCR is shown in Figure 7.
BCR: Recycled vs Natural aggregates
Note:
V v (m3 /m2) = volume of base/sub-base using virgin material
BCR= Net benefit/costs associated for the process V r (m3 /m2) = volume of base/sub-base recycled material
A Density of quarry material = 2.6 t/m3
Net benefit

Difference in material cost of aggregate (A$/m2)

Use value = B (unit cost of virgin material, (61 A$/m3) x corresponding volume, m3 ) - B (unit cost of recycled material, (51
A$/m3) x corresponding volume, m3/m2 ) =61 Vv –51 V r (A$/m2)

Option value Saved mining operation cost (A$/m2) = C (Average mining cost in quarry, (85.8 A$/m3) x corresponding volume,
m3) – D (Average recycling cost, (64.04 A$/m3) x corresponding volume, m3 /m2) = 85.8 Vv – 64.04 V r (A$/m2)

Saved landfill cost of recycled aggregates (A$/m2) = E unit landfill cost, (161.2 A$/m3) x corresponding volume,
m3/m2 = 161.2 V r (A$/m2)

Saved mining land cost of virgin aggregates (A$/m2)

= F unit quarry land requirement, (0.0724 m2/m3) x G average cost of land, (25.04 A$/m2) x corresponding
volume, m3/m2 = 1.81 V v (A$/m2)

Environmental benefits Average CO2 emission (quarry + landfill) = required energy intensity ( H quarry + I landfill), (101.4 + 4.083 MJ/m3)
x J CO2emission factor (0.09 Kg/MJ) x corresponding volume, m3/m2 = 9.49 V v kg/m2

Average CO2 emission (recycling) = K required energy intensity (recycling), (40.8 MJ/m3) x CO2emission factor
CO2 emission
(0.09 Kg/MJ) x corresponding volume, m3/m2 = 3.67 V r Kg/m2
Reduced CO2 emission = (9.49 Vv ) – (3.67 V r) Kg/m2

BCR Economic = Net benefit (use value + option value) / material costs associated with using recycled materials

BCR Environment = Reduced CO2 emission for recycling / average CO2 emission for using recycled aggregates

Figure Schematicdiagram
Figure 7. Schematic diagramofofthe themethod
methodofof calculating
calculating thethe benefit-cost
benefit-cost ratio
ratio (BCR)
(BCR) considering
considering the
the A typical quarry material density obtained
use use value
value andand
the the option
option valuevalue of resources.
of resources. (Note:
(Note: A typical quarry material density obtained from
B market price of aggregatesC, [46];
from Austroads
Austroads [45]; B[45];
market price of aggregates [46]; D, E, H,C, I, J,D,
K E, H, I, J, K calculated based on the values
calculated based on the values provided
provided in Figure 6 (reference: B, D, G, A & C, F, H, D F
in Figure 6 (reference: B, D, G, A & C, F, H, D of Figure 6, respectively); based onbased
of Figure 6, respectively);
F onCoast
a Gold a Goldquarry,
Coast
quarry, Australia [47]; G average of land prices, considering different percentage land uses [48].)
Australia [47]; average of land prices, considering different percentage land uses [48].)
G

2.3.2. Analyzing a Case Study

2.3.2. Analyzing a Case Study
A 7000 m22 CBP was constructed at the Leppington Bus Depot in NSW, Australia, in 2016,
A 7000 m CBP was constructed at the Leppington Bus Depot in NSW, Australia, in 2016, by
by InfraTech Geo Solutions [49], where the DesignPave software was used to estimate the sub-base
InfraTech Geo Solutions [49], where the DesignPave software was used to estimate the sub-base
course thickness, by keeping a specific base course depth of 300 mm. An overview of the CBP design
course thickness, by keeping a specific base course depth of 300 mm. An overview of the CBP design
properties is provided in Figure 8. The CBP was visually inspected over four years and no noticeable
properties is provided in Figure 8. The CBP was visually inspected over four years and no noticeable
damage/deterioration was observed. Four years is only a fraction of design life, however, the case
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability 10 of 16 10 of 17
study supports the applicability of this new mechanistic-empirical design method for Australian
construction.
damage/deterioration Thewas observed.
alternative Four years
design approach of usingisrecycled
only aaggregates
fraction of sub-base
in the designcourse
life, however,
considered the case study
the same pavement design properties and estimated the potential benefit that could be achieved in
supports the applicability of this new mechanistic-empirical design method for Australian
such a case for the whole (7000 m2) construction site (by adopting the methodology outlined in Figure
construction.
7).

Figure 8. CBP design of the Leppington Bus Depot case study, used for analyzing the sustainability
Figure 8. CBP design of the Leppington
of an alternative design approach. Bus Depot case study, used for analyzing the sustainability of
an alternative design approach.
2.3.3. Analysis Scenarios

The alternativeThe elastic approach

design modulus of aggregates
of using varies with theiraggregates
recycled material properties.
in theTherefore,
sub-basescenarios
course considered
were generated in this research for a range of elastic moduli for virgin and recycled aggregates (Table
the same pavement2). For each scenario, the base course/sub-base course depth was calculated, and this was used toachieved in such
design properties and estimated the potential benefit that could be
estimate
a case for the whole (7000 m2 ) construction
the volume/m 2 of pavement area. For the scenario analysis, the elastic modulus of virgin
site (by adopting the methodology outlined in Figure 7).
aggregate was varied from 100 to 250 MPa, while that for the recycled aggregates was varied from
100 to 350 MPa.
2.3.3. Analysis Scenarios
Table 2. Analyzed scenarios of aggregates for calculating the required volume of base course/sub-
The elastic modulus
base. of aggregates varies with their material properties. Therefore, scenarios were
generated in this research for a(MPa)
Elastic Modulus range of elastic moduli forAggregates
Virgin virgin and recycled aggregates (Table 2).
100 150 200 250
For each scenario, the base course/sub-base
100 course depth was calculated, and this was used to estimate
the volume/m2 of pavement area. For 150 the scenario analysis, the elastic modulus of virgin aggregate was
Estimated volume of base course/sub-base for each elastic modulus for:
200
Recycled aggregates Virgin aggregates (V )
varied from 100 to 250 MPa, while250 that for the recycled aggregates was varied from 100 to 350 MPa.
Recycled aggregates (V )
v

r
300
350
Table 2. Analyzed scenarios of aggregates for calculating the required volume of base course/sub-base.
2.4. Sustainability Analysis of Pavement Design
Virgin Aggregates
The sustainability of a system is influenced by three components, namely economic efficiency,
Elastic Modulus
environmental (MPa)
benefits, and social acceptability. For a pavement system, social acceptability is not a
100 150 200 250
100
150 Estimated volume of base course/sub-base for
Recycled aggregates each elastic modulus for: Virgin aggregates (Vv )
200
Recycled aggregates (Vr )
250
300
350

2.4. Sustainability Analysis of Pavement Design

The sustainability of a system is influenced by three components, namely economic efficiency,
environmental benefits, and social acceptability. For a pavement system, social acceptability is not a
significant influence compared to other structural designs for the same purpose. The design depth of
the pavement was calculated considering the stability of the pavement.
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

significant influence compared to other structural designs for the same purpose. The design depth of
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 11 of 17
the pavement was calculated considering the stability of the pavement.

2.5. Influence
2.5. InfluenceofofAggregate
Aggregate Properties:
Properties: Pavement
Pavement withwith Granular
Granular LayersLayers
A series of
A of analyses
analyseswas wasconducted
conductedtotounderstand
understand thetheeffect of of
effect aggregate
aggregate elastic modulus
elastic moduluson the
on
basebase
the andand
sub-base
sub-basethickness. The
thickness. paver
The paver and andbedding
beddingsand
sandproperties
propertieswere
werekept
kept constant
constant based on on
different reported laboratory tests [12], while the design thicknesses was
different reported laboratory tests [12], while the design thicknesses was plotted againstplotted against design ESA
in Figure
in Figure 9a,b
9a,b for different
different elastic
elastic moduli for the base course and sub-base aggregates, aggregates, respectively.
In general,
In general, for
for aa given
given elastic
elastic modulus
modulus value,
value, a minimum
minimum base course/sub-base thickness is required required
for lower ESA, then the thickness increases with increasing ESA. The minimum
for lower ESA, then the thickness increases with increasing ESA. The minimum thickness of the thickness of the base
base
course/sub-base can be sufficient
course/sub-base sufficient for
for higher
higher ESA ESA when
when the
the elastic
elastic modulus
modulus isis higher.
higher. Increasing
Increasing the
the
base course/sub-base
base course/sub-base elastic modulus decreases the respective thickness required, and the effect is is
more pronounced
more pronouncedatatlarger
largerESA
ESAvalues.
values.It Itcan
can
bebe seen
seen that
that thethe sensitivity
sensitivity of the
of the elastic
elastic modulus
modulus on
on the
the base
base course/sub-base
course/sub-base thickness
thickness is higher
is higher whenwhen considering
considering low elastic
low elastic modulimoduli aggregates
aggregates than
than for for
high
high elastic
elastic modulimoduli aggregates.
aggregates.

E= 350 MPa
E= 300 MPa
Base course thickness (mm)

E= 250 MPa

E= 200 MPa
E= 150 MPa

E= 100 MPa

a)

E= 350 MPa

E= 300 MPa

E= 250 MPa

E= 200 MPa

E= 150 MPa

E= 100 MPa

b)

Figure 9.9. Influence

Figure Influenceofofaggregate
aggregateelastic modulus
elastic on on
modulus thethe
CBPCBP
design curve
design for paver
curve thickness
for paver = 80 mm,
thickness = 80
bedding sand thickness = 20 mm, and subgrade CBR = 4% (a) base course thickness
mm, bedding sand thickness = 20 mm, and subgrade CBR = 4% (a) base course thickness variations, variations,
(b)
(b) sub-base
sub-base thickness
thickness variations.
variations.

As an example, for a pavement lying over a subgrade with CBR = 4% and ESA = 1 × 106 , the base
course thickness is reduced by approximately 15 mm (from 330 mm to 315 mm) for a base elastic
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 12 of 17

modulus increase of 300 MPa to 350 MPa, while the base course thickness reduction is approximately
60 mm (from 475 mm to 415 mm) for the same 50 MPa increase in elastic modulus from 100 MPa
to 150 MPa, as shown in Figure 9a. A similar trend is observed for sub-base thickness (Figure 9b).
This emphasizes the importance of quality control of the base course/sub-base material in order to
ensure the pavement design life.

2.6. Case Study Analysis: Leppington Bus Depot

The 7000 m2 of CBP that was constructed at the Leppinton Bus Depot was considered for assessing
the economic and environmental benefits of using recycled aggregates in the pavement, and these
benefits are shown in Table 3. The results illustrate the net benefits for a range of materials with
different elastic moduli that might be produced from recycled construction materials. For example,
a 7000 m2 CBP can potentially reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 97,000 kg of CO2 in its lifetime by
using recycled aggregates in the pavement.

Table 3. Accounted benefits for using recycled aggregates in the pavement system compared to using
virgin aggregates (E = 250 MPa).

Aggregate Elastic Modulus (MPa)

250 350 300 250 200 150 100
Cost of using virgin base
1345.05 - - - - - -
course material (×1000 A$)
Accounted net benefits of using recycled materials for a 7000 m2 pavement
Visible costs/use value
345.45 291.90 220.50 149.10 24.15 −172.20
(×1000 A$)
Hidden costs/option value
3204.27 3272.44 3363.32 3454.21 3613.26 3863.20
(×1000 A$)
Environmental benefits
(reduced CO2 emissions) 135.03 131.18 126.04 120.89 111.90 97.76
(×1000 kg)

When comparing to the direct cost of materials, the lower market price of recycled aggregates
provides benefits in most cases, except when there is a very low elastic modulus for the recycled
materials. As the market price of materials regulates this benefit, there might be variations or even no
benefits if the cost of recycled aggregates increases. However, the hidden cost or option value is an
important factor here, which is not realized generally but incurs an overall cost to society. The hidden
benefits accounted for in this research were much higher and thus controlled the overall benefit of the
scenario. The results demonstrate that the hidden benefit increases even when the elastic modulus
decreases. This is due to the increased benefit of not landfilling the recycled construction wastes.
The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) for any pavement system can be estimated by comparing the accounted
net benefits of using recycled materials against the cost of using that aggregate. The following parametric
study adopts the same pavement system as the case study site, and thus the case study site would
show similar BCR scenarios (Figures 10 and 11a).
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 13 of 17
Sustainability2020,
Sustainability 2020,12,
12,xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 13 of
13 16
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VA E=100 MPa
VA E=100 MPa
Benefit-cost ratio, BCR (Environment)
Benefit-cost ratio, BCR (Environment)
Benefit-cost ratio, BCR (Economic)
Benefit-cost ratio, BCR (Economic)
VA E=150 MPa
VA E=150 MPa

VA E=200 MPa
VA E=200 MPa

VA E=250 MPa
VA E=250 MPa

Figure 10. Economic and environmental BCRs when using recycled aggregates of different elastic
Figure
Figure Economic and environmental
10. Economic environmental BCRsBCRs when
when using
using recycled
recycled aggregates
aggregates of different
different elastic
moduli10.
compared to and
a range of natural (virgin) aggregates in the sub-base (Note:ofRA elastic
= recycled
moduli compared to a range of natural (virgin) aggregates in the sub-base (Note: RA = recycled
moduli compared
aggregates; to a range
VA = virgin of natural
aggregates; (virgin)
E = elastic aggregates
modulus, MPa). in the sub-base (Note: RA = recycled
aggregates; VA = virgin aggregates; E = elastic modulus, MPa).
aggregates; VA = virgin aggregates; E = elastic modulus, MPa).
Social acceptance
a) 4
Social acceptance b)
a) 4
3
b)
23

2
1

01

0 Sub-base: y = 0.6159x0.3706S

Sub-base: y = 0.6159x 0.3706S

0.3868B
Base course: y = 0.5576x

Base course: y = 0.5576x0.3868B

Environmental Economic
VA E=250 MPa RA E=250 MPa RS E=150 MPa
EnvironmentalRA E=350 MPa RS E=200 MPa
Economic
RA E=100 MPa
RA E=300 MPa
VA E=250 MPa RA E=250 MPa RS E=150 MPa
RA E=350 MPa RS E=200 MPa RA E=100 MPa
Figure RA (a)
11. BCR
E=300 MPascenarios when using RA of varying elastic modulus in the sub-base, and (b) rate of
change
Figure in
11.BCR when
(a) BCR using RA
scenarios in the
when base
using RAcourse and sub-base,
of varying compared
elastic modulus to asub-base,
in the E =(b)
static VAand 250 MPa.
rate
(Note: RA =
of change inrecycled
BCR when aggregates;
using RAVA = virgin
in the aggregates;
base course E = elastic
and sub-base, modulus,
compared toMPa.)
a static VA E = 250
Figure 11. (a)RA
MPa. (Note: BCR scenarios
= recycled when using
aggregates; VARA of varying
= virgin elasticEmodulus
aggregates; in the sub-base,
= elastic modulus, MPa.) and (b) rate
2.7. Parametric
of change in Study
BCR when using RA in the base course and sub-base, compared to a static VA E = 250
MPa.
The a(Note:
betterRA
For parametric =study
recycled
in aggregates;
understanding thisofresearchVAwas
the benefits= virgin
of aggregates;
using
conductedrecycled E aggregates
= elasticamodulus,
considering MPa.)
in a pavement
pavement sub-base,that
configuration
a comparison
contains sub-basewasmaterial
performed against
along with aa specific
granularvirgin
base aggregate use (with
course material lying elastic
below modulus 250 MPa,
the concrete pavers
which
and For a better
is the most
the bedding understanding
sand.common
A pavement of
value,the benefits
Figure
system of using
11).only
with Virgin recycled
a baseaggregate aggregates in
is considered
course layer a pavement sub-base,
as the basis
would demonstrate of
a similar
a comparison
comparison was
since performed
it has no net against
benefits. a specific
In virgin
addition, aggregate
social acceptance use (with
was elastic
considered
relationship, however, the sub-base configuration was selected to be consistent with the case study. modulus
to be 250
consistentMPa,
which is theofpavement
irrespective
Various most common
the materials value,
used
design Figure
inoptions
the 11). Virgin
pavement. aggregate
The result
(scenarios) wereshows is considered
that
assessed even recycled
against as aggregates
theirtheeconomic
basis of
with
and a
comparison lower elastic
since it has
environmental modulus can offer
no netdemonstrating
benefits, higher
benefits. In addition, environmental
the extentsocial and economic
acceptance was
of eco-efficiency efficiency
considered
achieved than using
to be consistent
by different design
virgin aggregates.
irrespective of the The economic
materials used benefit
in the ispavement.
found to beThe much higher
result in allthat
shows cases, andrecycled
even this is due to the
aggregates
options. Figure 10 shows the economic and environmental BCRs associated with using recycled
landfill
with costs for
a lower construction
elastic modulus wastes.
can offerThus, whenenvironmental
higher the wastes are recycled into aggregate material, the
aggregates of various elastic moduli (100 MPa to 350 MPa) when and economic
compared efficiency
to using virgin than using
aggregates
landfill
virgin cost reduces,
aggregates. and this
The economic results in higher economic benefits. As the material costs increase due
of various elastic moduli (VA E =benefit
100 MPa, is found
150 MPa,to be200
much higher
MPa, in all
and 250 cases,The
MPa). andanalysis
this is due to the
indicates
to increased
landfill costs thickness
for requirements
construction wastes. for base when
Thus, coursethe andwastes
sub-baseare layers,
recycledthisinto
alsoaggregate
reduces the benefit-the
material,
that both economic and environmental BCRs have a trend of reduction with a decrease in aggregate
cost ratio
landfill cost(Figure
reduces, 11b).
and Materials
thisthe
results withhigher
higher elastic modulus
benefits.are associated with
costshigher COdue
2
elastic modulus. However, rate inof changeeconomic
in environmental As
BCR theismaterial
stiffer than increase
the economic
reductions,
to increased and thus
thickness this shows
requirements a higher BCR.
for base courseelastic
and sub-base
BCR, signifying the importance of having a higher moduluslayers, this also
in recycled reduces the
aggregates for benefit-
gaining
cost ratio (Figure 11b). Materials with higher elastic modulus are associated with higher CO2
reductions, and thus this shows a higher BCR.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 14 of 17

environmental benefits. A similar trend of BCR would be achieved in the case of recycled aggregates
that are used in the base course, as shown in Figure 11b.
For a better understanding of the benefits of using recycled aggregates in a pavement sub-base,
a comparison was performed against a specific virgin aggregate use (with elastic modulus 250 MPa,
which is the most common value, Figure 11). Virgin aggregate is considered as the basis of comparison
since it has no net benefits. In addition, social acceptance was considered to be consistent irrespective
of the materials used in the pavement. The result shows that even recycled aggregates with a lower
elastic modulus can offer higher environmental and economic efficiency than using virgin aggregates.
The economic benefit is found to be much higher in all cases, and this is due to the landfill costs for
construction wastes. Thus, when the wastes are recycled into aggregate material, the landfill cost
reduces, and this results in higher economic benefits. As the material costs increase due to increased
thickness requirements for base course and sub-base layers, this also reduces the benefit-cost ratio
(Figure 11b). Materials with higher elastic modulus are associated with higher CO2 reductions, and thus
this shows a higher BCR.

3. Conclusions
The algorithm for a newly developed software program that can be used for the design and analysis
of concrete block pavements (CBPs), using a mechanistic-empirical approach, was discussed in this
research. Parametric studies were conducted with the software to investigate the influence of aggregate
elastic modulus on the design thicknesses of the base/sub-base layers. Thus, the sustainability
concerning economic and environmental efficiency of using recycled aggregates, substituting the virgin
aggregates, was analysed for a potential range of elastic modulus of recycled aggregates. The major
findings of this study were:

• The new mechanistic-empirical design method via DesignPave was applied in many CBP
designs in Australia. However, a 7000 m2 CBP at the Leppington Bus Depot in NSW, Australia,
was constructed in 2016 and monitored for the last four years. No noticeable damage/deterioration
at the case site supported the applicability of this new mechanistic-empirical design method for
Australian construction.
• For the parametric analysis on the use of recycled aggregates, it was evident that the recycled
aggregates were economically more efficient than the virgin aggregates when the total life cycle
was considered.
• It was also evident from the research that recycled aggregates with higher elastic modulus would
be influential in obtaining higher economic and environmental benefits.

Although the details of the use value and option value of resources (virgin and recycled aggregate)
and how they incorporated in the sustainability analysis for different scenarios were presented. Some
assumptions, as discussed earlier, have to be made for assessing the life cycle of aggregates. Therefore,
these are the scopes for further research in assessing the life cycle of the materials and reducing the
errors from assumptions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.M.R. and S.B.; formal analysis, M.M.R., A.T.Z.R. and A.I.;
methodology, M.M.R. and A.I.; resources, S.B., M.M.R., M.R.K. and A.I.; validation, M.M.R., R.K., A.T.Z.R.
and A.I.; writing—original draft, M.M.R. and A.I.; writing—review and editing, M.M.R., S.B., A.I., R.K. and
A.T.Z.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Authors would like to acknowledge the financial to the development of the software, DesignPave V2.0,
by the Concrete Masonry Association Australia (CMAA).
Acknowledgments: Authors would like to acknowledge Michael Koungras for providing the details of the case
study. Authors also like to acknowledge proactive motivation and support on recycled aggregate from Peter
Levett and the city of Salisbury.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4313 15 of 17

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