Anatomy and Physiology

The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory input – gathering information
 To monitor changes occurring
inside and outside the body
(changes = stimuli)
2. Integration –
 to process and interpret sensory
input and decide if action is needed.
3. Motor output
 A response to integrated stimuli
 The response activates muscles or
glands
Structural Classification of the Nervous
System
 Central nervous system (CNS)
 Brain
 Spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 Nerve outside the brain and spinal
cord
Functional Classification of the Peripheral
Nervous System
Sensory (afferent) division
 Nerve fibers that carry information
to the central nervous system
Motor (efferent) division
 Nerve fibers that carry impulses
away from the central nervous
system
Two subdivisions
 Somatic nervous
system = voluntary
 Autonomic nervous
system =

involuntary

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Anatomy and Physiology
Organization of the Nervous System  Schwann cells
 Form myelin sheath in the
peripheral nervous system
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Neurons = nerve cells
 Cells specialized to transmit
messages
 Major regions of neurons
 Cell body – nucleus
and metabolic
center of the cell
 Processes – fibers
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells that extend from the
(Neuroglia or Glia) cell body (dendrites
Astrocytes and axons)
 Abundant, star-shaped cells Neuron Anatomy
 Brace neurons Cell body
 Form barrier between capillaries  Nucleus
and neurons  Large nucleolus
 Control the chemical environment
of
the brain (CNS)

Microglia (CNS)
 Spider-like phagocytes
 Dispose of debris
Ependymal cells (CNS)
 Line cavities of the brain and spinal Axons and Nerve Impulses
cord  Axons end in axonal terminals
 Circulate cerebrospinal fluid  Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
Oligodendrocytes(CNS) neurotransmitters
 Produce myelin sheath around  Axonal terminals are separated from
nerve fibers in the central nervous the next neuron by a gap
system  Synaptic cleft – gap between
adjacent neurons
 Synapse – junction between nerves

Neuroglia vs. Neurons

 Neuroglia divide.
 Neurons do not.
 Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
 Most brain tumors involve the Nerve Fiber Coverings
neuroglia cells, not the neurons.  Schwann cells – produce myelin
 Consider the role of cell division in sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion
cancer!  Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin
Support Cells of the PNS sheath along the axon
 Satellite cells 
 Protect neuron cell bodies

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Anatomy and Physiology
Application
 In Multiple Scleroses the myelin
sheath is destroyed.
 The myelin sheath hardens to a tissue
called the scleroses. Unipolar neurons – have a short single
 This is considered an autoimmune process leaving the cell body
disease.
 Why does MS appear to affect the
muscles?
Neuron Cell Body Location
 Most are found in the central nervous How Neurons Function (Physiology)
system  Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
 Gray matter – cell bodies and  Conductivity – ability to transmit an
unmylenated fibers impulse
 Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies  The plasma membrane at rest is
within the white matter of the polarized
central nervous system  Fewer positive ions are inside the
 Ganglia – collections of cell bodies cell than outside the cell
outside the central nervous system Starting a Nerve Impulse
Functional Classification of Neurons  Depolarization – a stimulus
Sensory (afferent) neurons depolarizes the neuron’s membrane
 Carry impulses from the sensory  A deploarized membrane allows
receptors sodium (Na+) to flow inside the
 Cutaneous sense membrane
organs  The exchange of ions initiates an
 Proprioceptors – action potential in the neuron
detect stretch or
tension
Motor (efferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the central
nervous system
Interneurons (association neurons)
 Found in neural pathways in the
central nervous system
 Connect sensory and motor
neurons
Neuron Classification

Structural Classification of Neurons

Multipolar neurons – many extensions
from the cell body

Bipolar neurons – one axon and one

dendrite

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Anatomy and Physiology
involuntary responses to stimuli

The Action Potential

 If the action potential (nerve impulse)
starts, it is propagated over the entire
axon
 Potassium ions rush out of the neuron
after sodium ions rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane
 The sodium-potassium pump restores
the original configuration
 This action requires ATP

Nerve Impulse Propagation

 The impulse
continues to
move toward
the cell body
 Impulses
travel faster
when fibers
have a myelin
sheath
Continuation of the Nerve Impulse
between Neurons
Impulses are able to cross the synapse
to another nerve
 Neurotransmitter is released from a
nerve’s axon terminal
 The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
 An action potential is started in the
dendrite
How Neurons Communicate at Synapses

The Reflex Arc

Reflex – rapid, predictable, and

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Anatomy and Physiology
Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Simple Reflex Arc

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

 Autonomic reflexes
 Smooth muscle regulation
 Heart and blood pressure regulation
 Regulation of glands
 Digestive system regulation
 Somatic reflexes
 Activation of skeletal muscles
Central Nervous System (CNS)
CNS develops from the embryonic
neural tube
 The neural tube becomes the brain
and spinal cord
 The opening of the neural tube
becomes the ventricles
 Four chambers
within the brain
 Filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
Regions of the Brain
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

 Paired (left and right) superior parts of
the brain
 Include more than half of the brain
mass
 The surface is made of ridges (gyri)
and grooves (sulci)

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Anatomy and Physiology
 The surface is made of ridges (gyri) Cerebral Cortex
and grooves (sulci)

Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Cerebral areas involved in special
Lobes of the Cerebrum senses
 Fissures (deep grooves) divide the  Gustatory area (taste)
cerebrum into lobes  Visual area
 Surface lobes of the cerebrum  Auditory area
 Frontal lobe  Olfactory area
 Parietal lobe Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
 Occipital lobe  Speech/language region
 Temporal lobe  Language comprehension region

Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

 Somatic sensory area – receives
impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors
 Primary motor area – sends impulses
to skeletal muscles
 Broca’s area – involved in our ability to
speak

Sensory and Motor Areas of the

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Anatomy and Physiology
 General interpretation area

Layers of the Cerebrum

Gray matter
 Outer layer
 Composed mostly of neuron cell
bodies
White matter
 Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
Example: corpus callosum connects
hemispheres
Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray
matter
 Regulates voluntary motor activities by
modifying info sent to the motor cortex
 Problems = ie unable to control
muscles, spastic, jerky
 Involved in Huntington’s and
Parkinson’s Disease

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Anatomy and Physiology
 Medulla oblongata
Midbrain
Mostly composed of tracts of nerve
fibers
 Reflex centers for vision and
hearing
 Cerebral aquaduct – 3rd-4th
ventricles
Pons
 The bulging center part of the brain
stem
 Mostly composed of fiber tracts
 Includes nuclei involved in the control
of breathing
Medulla Oblongata
 The lowest part of the brain stem
 Merges into the spinal cord
Diencephalon  Includes important fiber tracts
 Sits on top of the brain stem  Contains important control centers
 Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres  Heart rate control
 Made of three parts  Blood pressure regulation
 Thalamus  Breathing
 Hypothalamus  Swallowing
 Epithalamus  Vomiting
Thalamus Cerebellum
 Surrounds the third ventricle  Two hemispheres with convoluted
surfaces
 The relay station for sensory impulses
 Provides involuntary coordination of
 Transfers impulses to the correct part
body movements
of the cortex for localization and
Protection of the Central Nervous System
interpretation
Hypothalamus  Scalp and skin
 Under the thalamus  Skull and vertebral column
 Important autonomic nervous system  Meninges
center  Cerebrospinal fluid
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Controls water balance
 Regulates metabolism
 An important part of the limbic system
(emotions)
 The pituitary gland is attached to the
hypothalamus
Epithalamus
 Forms the roof of the third ventricle
 Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
 Includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem
 Attaches to the spinal cord
 Parts of the brain stem
 Midbrain
 Pons

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Anatomy and Physiology
 Blood brain barrier happened
 Recovery likely with some memory
loss
 Contusion
 A more severe TBI
 Nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Nervous tissue does not regenerate
 Cerebral edema
 Swelling from the inflammatory
response
 May compress and kill brain tissue
 Subdural hematoma
Meninges
Dura mater  Collection of blood below the dura
 Double-layered external covering  Standards for these conditions were
revised in 2004. Please check out
 Periosteum –
TBIs at Mayoclinic.com for more
attached to surface
current information on diagnostic
of the skull
terminology.
 Meningeal layer –
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
outer covering of
 Commonly called a stroke
the brain
 The result of a ruptured blood vessel
 Folds inward in several areas
supplying a region of the brain
Arachnoid layer
 Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
 Middle layer
that blood source dies
 Web-like
 Loss of some functions or death may
Pia mater
result
 Internal layer
Alzheimer’s Disease
 Clings to the surface of the brain
 Progressive degenerative brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid
disease
 Similar to blood plasma composition
 Mostly seen in the elderly, but may
 Formed by the choroid plexus begin in middle age
 Forms a watery cushion to protect the  Structural changes in the brain include
brain abnormal protein deposits and twisted
 Circulated in arachnoid space, fibers within neurons
ventricles, and central canal of the  Victims experience memory loss,
spinal cord irritability, confusion and ultimately,
Blood Brain Barrier hallucinations and death
 Includes the least permeable Spinal Cord
capillaries of the body  Extends from the medulla oblongata to
 Excludes many potentially harmful the region of T12
substances  Below T12 is the cauda equina (a
 Useless against some substances collection of spinal nerves)
 Fats and fat soluble molecules  Enlargements occur in the cervical and
 Respiratory gases lumbar regions
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
 Anesthesia

Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI)

 Concussion
 Slight or mild brain injury
 Bleeding & tearing of nerve fibers

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Anatomy and Physiology
motor fibers
 Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry
impulses toward the CNS
 Efferent (motor) nerves – carry
impulses away from the CNS
Spinal Nerves

Spinal Cord Anatomy

Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
 Dorsal (posterior) horns
 Anterior (ventral) horns
 Central canal filled with cerebrospinal
fluid
 Meninges cover the spinal cord
 Nerves leave at the level of each
vertebrae
 Dorsal root
 Associated with the
dorsal root ganglia –
collections of cell
bodies outside the
central nervous
system
 Ventral root
Peripheral Nervous System
 Nerves and ganglia outside the central
nervous system
 Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
 Neuron fibers are bundled by
connective tissue
Structure of a Nerve
 Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
 Groups of fibers are bound into
fascicles by perineurium
 Fascicles are bound together by
epineurium

Classification of Nerves
 Mixed nerves – both sensory and

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Anatomy and Physiology
-There is a pair of spinal nerves at the  Remember as the “E” division =
level of each vertebrae. exercise, excitement, emergency,
and embarrassment
Parasympathetic – housekeeping
activites
 Conserves energy
 Maintains daily necessary body
functions
 Remember as the “D” division -
digestion, defecation, and diuresis
Development Aspects of the Nervous
System
 The nervous system is formed during
the first month of embryonic
Autonomic Nervous System development
 The involuntary branch of the nervous  Any maternal infection can have
system extremely harmful effects
 Consists of only motor nerves  The hypothalamus is one of the last
 Divided into two divisions areas of the brain to develop
 Sympathetic division  No more neurons are formed after
 Parasympathetic division birth, but growth and maturation
Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic continues for several years (new
Nervous Systems evidence!)
 The brain reaches maximum weight as
a young adult
 However, we can always grow
dendrites!

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous

System

Autonomic Functioning
Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
 Response to unusual stimulus
 Takes over to increase activities

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