CHAPTER 1:

1.1 Organization and Architecture

Organization vs. Architecture: Distinguishes between the organization and architecture of a computer system.
Organization refers to the physical arrangement of hardware components, while architecture refers to the conceptual
structure and functional behavior.
Functional Units: Discusses the key functional units of a computer system including the input unit, output unit,
memory unit, arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), and control unit.
Instruction Execution Cycle: Introduces the basic steps involved in executing instructions, such as fetch, decode,
execute, and store.
1.2 Structure and Function
Structure and Function Relationship: Explores how the structure of a computer system influences its function and
performance.
Hierarchy of Functional Units: Describes the hierarchical organization of functional units in a computer system,
emphasizing their interconnection and coordination.
Performance Metrics: Introduces various performance metrics such as response time, throughput, and efficiency, and
discusses their significance in evaluating computer systems.
1.3 The IAS Computer
IAS (Institute for Advanced Study) Computer: Provides a historical overview of the IAS computer, an early electronic
computer designed by John von Neumann.
Von Neumann Architecture: Explains the key features of the von Neumann architecture, including the use of a single
memory for both data and instructions, the fetch-execute cycle, and the stored program concept.
1.4 Gates, Memory Cells, Chips, and Multichip Modules
Digital Logic Gates: Introduces basic digital logic gates such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates, and
explains their role in performing logical operations.
Memory Cells: Describes the structure and operation of memory cells, the basic building blocks of memory units.
Integrated Circuits: Discusses the development of integrated circuits (ICs) and their impact on computer hardware
design, including the integration of multiple gates and memory cells into a single chip.
Multichip Modules: Explores the concept of multichip modules (MCMs), which involve packaging multiple ICs
together to form a larger functional unit.
1.5 The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture
Historical Background: Traces the evolution of the Intel x86 architecture from its early versions to the present day.
Major Architectural Features: Highlights key architectural features of the x86 architecture, such as its instruction set,
memory addressing modes, and register organization.
Impact on Computing: Discusses the significance of the x86 architecture in the history of computing and its
widespread adoption in personal computers.

1.6 Embedded Systems

Definition and Characteristics: Defines embedded systems as computer systems designed to perform specific
functions within a larger system or product.
Applications: Explores various applications of embedded systems across different industries, including automotive,
consumer electronics, healthcare, and industrial automation.
Design Considerations: Discusses design considerations for embedded systems, such as real-time constraints, power
consumption, size, and cost.
1.7 ARM Architecture
Overview of ARM: Provides an overview of the ARM (Advanced RISC Machine) architecture, emphasizing its
characteristics as a Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architecture.
Applications: Discusses the widespread use of ARM processors in embedded systems, smartphones, tablets, and other
portable devices.
Advantages: Highlights the advantages of the ARM architecture, including energy efficiency, scalability, and
performance.

EXTRA BİLGİLER:
AŞAĞIDA
CHAPTER 2:
2.1 Designing for Performance
Performance Optimization: Discusses the importance of designing computer systems for optimal performance.
Factors Influencing Performance: Covers various factors that impact performance, including hardware design,
software algorithms, and system architecture.
Trade-offs: Highlights the need to balance competing design objectives such as speed, cost, and power consumption.
2.2 Multicore, MICs, and GPGPUs
Parallel Computing Paradigms: Introduces multicore processors, Many Integrated Cores (MICs), and General-Purpose
Graphics Processing Units (GPGPUs) as architectures designed to exploit parallelism.
Advantages: Discusses the advantages of parallel computing architectures in terms of performance scalability and
efficiency.
Challenges: Addresses challenges such as parallel programming complexity and synchronization overhead.
2.3 Two Laws that Provide Insight: Ahmdahl’s Law and Little’s Law
Ahmdahl’s Law: Explains Ahmdahl’s Law, which quantifies the potential speedup of a program due to parallelization,
given a fraction of the program that can be parallelized.
Little’s Law: Introduces Little’s Law, which relates the average number of items in a system to the average time spent
by an item in the system.
2.4 Basic Measures of Computer Performance
Response Time and Throughput: Defines response time (execution time) as the time taken to complete a task and
throughput as the number of tasks completed per unit of time.
Speedup: Describes speedup as the ratio of the performance of a system with multiple processors to the performance
of a system with a single processor executing the same task.
2.5 Calculating the Mean
Mean Calculation: Explains how to calculate the mean (average) of a set of data points using the formula sum of all
data points divided by the number of data points.
Significance: Discusses the significance of the mean as a measure of central tendency in performance analysis and
benchmarking.
2.6 Benchmarks and SPEC
Benchmarking: Discusses the use of benchmarks to evaluate and compare the performance of computer systems.
SPEC (Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation): Introduces SPEC as an organization that develops
standardized benchmarks for evaluating the performance of computer systems, including CPU, graphics, and power
benchmarks.
CHAPTER 3:

3.1 Computer Components

Overview of Components: Discusses the key components of a computer system, including the CPU (Central
Processing Unit), memory, input/output devices, and storage devices.
Role of Components: Explains the function of each component in processing data and executing instructions.
Hierarchy of Components: Highlights the hierarchical organization of components, with the CPU at the top
performing processing tasks and other components supporting its operation.
3.2 Computer Function
Input: Covers the process of inputting data into the computer system through input devices such as keyboards, mice,
and sensors.
Processing: Explains how the CPU processes data by executing instructions fetched from memory.
Output: Describes the output process, where processed data is presented to the user through output devices such as
monitors, printers, and speakers.
Storage: Discusses the role of storage devices in storing data and programs for future use.
3.3 Interconnection Structures
Interconnection Overview: Introduces the concept of interconnection structures, which facilitate communication and
data transfer between computer components.
Types of Interconnection: Discusses different types of interconnection structures, including buses, point-to-point
connections, and networks.
Scalability: Addresses the scalability of interconnection structures, which determines their ability to support varying
numbers of components and communication speeds.
3.4 Bus Interconnection
Bus Architecture: Explains the bus architecture, which consists of a set of parallel wires used to transfer data between
components.
Bus Components: Describes the components of a bus system, including the data bus, address bus, and control bus.
Bus Operation: Discusses how data transfer occurs on the bus through processes such as bus arbitration, data transfer,
and bus release.
3.5 Point-to-Point Interconnect
Point-to-Point Overview: Introduces point-to-point interconnects, which provide dedicated communication channels
between pairs of components.
Advantages: Discusses the advantages of point-to-point interconnects, including reduced contention and increased
bandwidth compared to bus-based systems.
Examples: Provides examples of point-to-point interconnect technologies, such as PCI Express and HyperTransport.

3.6 PCI Express

PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express): Provides an in-depth overview of the PCI Express
interconnect standard.
Features: Discusses the features of PCI Express, including its high-speed serial data transfer, point-to-point topology,
and scalability.
Applications: Highlights the applications of PCI Express in various computing systems, including desktop PCs,
servers, and embedded systems.

Chapter 4:

4.1 Principle of Locality

Definition of Locality: Introduces the principle of locality, which states that programs tend to access
a relatively small portion of their address space at any given time.
Types of Locality: Discusses two main types of locality: temporal locality (reusing recently
accessed data) and spatial locality (accessing data stored nearby).
4.2 Characteristics of Memory Systems
Memory System Overview: Provides an overview of memory systems, which store data and
instructions for processing by the CPU.
Characteristics: Describes key characteristics of memory systems, including capacity, access time,
volatility, and cost.
Hierarchy: Introduces the concept of the memory hierarchy, which organizes memory into multiple
levels based on access time and cost.
4.3 The Memory Hierarchy
Hierarchy Levels: Discusses the various levels of the memory hierarchy, including registers, cache,
main memory (RAM), secondary storage (hard drives, SSDs), and tertiary storage (offline storage).
Role of Each Level: Explains the role of each level in the hierarchy, with faster and more expensive
memory levels closer to the CPU and slower and cheaper levels farther away.
Cache Memory: Provides an in-depth look at cache memory, which stores frequently accessed data
and instructions to reduce the average access time.
4.4 Performance Modeling of a Multilevel Memory Hierarchy
Modeling Considerations: Discusses considerations for modeling the performance of a multilevel
memory hierarchy, including access time, hit rate, and miss penalty.
Hit and Miss Rates: Defines hit rate as the fraction of memory accesses that result in a cache hit and
miss rate as the fraction that result in a cache miss.
Miss Penalty: Explains miss penalty as the additional time required to retrieve data from a slower
memory level in the hierarchy in the event of a cache miss.
Chapter 5:
5.1 Cache Memory Principles
Introduction to Cache Memory: Discusses the role of cache memory in improving CPU
performance by reducing memory access time.
Principles of Operation: Explains the principles of cache memory operation, including the use of a
small, fast cache to store frequently accessed data from a larger, slower main memory.
Cache Hierarchy: Introduces the concept of cache hierarchy, which may include multiple levels of
cache (L1, L2, L3) with varying sizes and speeds.
5.2 Elements of Cache Design
Cache Organization: Discusses the organization of cache memory, including cache lines, cache sets,
and cache blocks.
Cache Mapping Techniques: Introduces cache mapping techniques such as direct-mapped, set-
associative, and fully associative mapping, explaining their advantages and limitations.
Cache Replacement Policies: Describes cache replacement policies like Least Recently Used
(LRU), First-In-First-Out (FIFO), and Random replacement, which determine which cache line to
replace when a new block is brought into the cache.
5.3 Intel x86 Cache Organization
Cache Organization in x86 Processors: Provides an overview of cache organization in Intel x86
processors, including the L1, L2, and L3 cache hierarchy.
Cache Sizes and Configurations: Discusses the sizes and configurations of cache memory in
different x86 processor models.
Impact on Performance: Explains how cache organization impacts the performance of x86
processors in terms of latency, throughput, and power consumption.
5.4 The IBM z13 Cache Organization
Cache Organization in IBM z13: Introduces the cache organization in IBM z13 mainframe
computers, highlighting differences compared to cache organization in x86 processors.
Mainframe Cache Features: Discusses features of the z13 cache, such as its capacity, access time,
and support for high availability and reliability.
5.5 Cache Performance Models
Modeling Cache Performance: Discusses various cache performance models used to evaluate cache
performance metrics such as hit rate, miss rate, and average memory access time.
Analytical Models: Introduces analytical models such as the miss penalty model and the hit time
model, which help predict cache performance based on cache parameters and access patterns.
CHAPTER 6:
6.1 Semiconductor Main Memory
Introduction to Main Memory: Discusses semiconductor main memory as a key component of a computer system,
responsible for storing data and instructions currently being processed by the CPU.
Types of Semiconductor Memory: Introduces different types of semiconductor memory, such as DRAM (Dynamic
Random Access Memory) and SRAM (Static Random Access Memory), highlighting their characteristics and
applications.
Organization and Operation: Explains the organization and operation of semiconductor main memory, including
addressing schemes, data access methods, and memory access times.
6.2 Error Correction
Error Detection and Correction: Discusses the importance of error detection and correction mechanisms in main
memory to ensure data integrity and reliability.
ECC (Error-Correcting Code): Introduces ECC as a technique used to detect and correct errors in memory, particularly
in DRAM modules.
Parity and Hamming Codes: Explains parity and Hamming codes as examples of error detection and correction codes
used in memory systems.
6.3 DDR DRAM
DDR (Double Data Rate) DRAM: Provides an overview of DDR DRAM, a type of synchronous DRAM widely used
as main memory in modern computer systems.
Features and Advantages: Discusses the features and advantages of DDR DRAM, including its high bandwidth, low
power consumption, and compatibility with existing systems.
Evolution: Traces the evolution of DDR DRAM from DDR1 to DDR4 and beyond, highlighting improvements in
speed, capacity, and efficiency.
6.4 eDRAM
Embedded DRAM (eDRAM): Introduces eDRAM as a type of DRAM integrated directly into a microprocessor or
system-on-chip (SoC).
Benefits: Discusses the benefits of eDRAM, including reduced latency, improved bandwidth, and lower power
consumption compared to off-chip DRAM solutions.
Applications: Highlights applications of eDRAM in high-performance computing, gaming consoles, and mobile
devices.
6.5 Flash Memory
Introduction to Flash Memory: Provides an overview of flash memory, a non-volatile semiconductor memory
technology used for data storage in devices such as USB drives, SSDs, and memory cards.
Operation: Explains the operation of flash memory, including the principles of floating gate transistors, erase and
program operations, and wear leveling techniques.
Types of Flash Memory: Discusses different types of flash memory, including NAND flash and NOR flash, and their
respective applications.

6.6 Newer Nonvolatile Solid-State Memory Technologies

Emerging Technologies: Explores newer nonvolatile solid-state memory technologies beyond traditional flash
memory, such as MRAM (Magneto-Resistive RAM), PCM (Phase-Change Memory), and RRAM (Resistive RAM).
Advantages and Challenges: Discusses the advantages and challenges of these emerging technologies, including
improved performance, endurance, and scalability compared to flash memory.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:

Chapter 1:
1. Which of the following best describes the difference between computer organization and computer architecture?
A) Computer organization refers to the physical arrangement of hardware components, while computer architecture
refers to the conceptual structure and functional behavior.
B) Computer organization focuses on software algorithms, while computer architecture focuses on hardware design.
C) Computer organization and computer architecture are interchangeable terms.
D) Computer organization refers to the functional behavior of a computer, while computer architecture refers to its
physical components.
(answer : a)
2. Which of the following is NOT one of the key functional units of a computer system?
A) Input unit
B) Output unit
C) Memory unit
D) Processing unit
(answer : d)
3. What is the primary function of the control unit in a computer system?
A) To perform arithmetic and logic operations
B) To store data and instructions temporarily
C) To manage the flow of data and instructions between different parts of the computer
D) To present processed data to the user
(answer : c)
4. What does the fetch-decode-execute cycle in a computer system involve?
A) Fetching data from the memory, decoding it into instructions, and executing the instructions
B) Fetching instructions from the memory, decoding them into data, and executing the data
C) Fetching data from the input devices, decoding it into instructions, and executing the instructions
D) Fetching instructions from the output devices, decoding them into data, and executing the data
(answer : a)
5. Which of the following is NOT a performance metric used to evaluate computer systems?
A) Response time
B) Throughput
C) Efficiency
D) Voltage
(answer : d)
6. What historical milestone is associated with the development of the von Neumann architecture?
A) The invention of the first electronic computer
B) The introduction of magnetic core memory
C) The creation of the first stored-program computer
D) The development of the first integrated circuit
(answer : c)
7. Which of the following encoding schemes is used for representing characters in computer systems?
A) ASCII
B) Binary
C) Octal
D) Decimal
(answer : a)
8. What is Moore's Law?
A) The observation that the number of transistors on a chip doubles approximately every two years.
B) The principle that describes the speedup achieved by parallel processing.
C) The concept of organizing data in a hierarchical structure.
D) The method used to detect and correct errors in memory.
(answer : a)

Chapter 2:
1. Which of the following best describes the purpose of designing computer systems for performance?
A) To maximize speed at any cost
B) To minimize cost without considering speed
C) To balance various design objectives such as speed, cost, and power consumption
D) To prioritize power consumption over speed
(answer : c)
2. Which of the following computing architectures exploits parallelism by incorporating multiple processing units on a
single chip?
A) Multicore processors
B) Single-core processors
C) Sequential processors
D) Hyperthreaded processors
(answer : a)
3. Ahmdahl's Law quantifies the potential speedup of a program due to parallelization based on which factor?
A) The fraction of the program that can be parallelized
B) The total number of instructions in the program
C) The clock speed of the processor
D) The size of the cache memory
(answer : a)
4. Little's Law relates the average number of items in a system to which of the following?
A) The average time spent by an item in the system
B) The total number of instructions executed by the system
C) The number of processors in the system
D) The size of the main memory in the system
(answer : a)
5. What is a common measure of computer performance that represents the number of tasks completed per unit of
time?
A) Response time
B) Throughput
C) Latency
D) Speedup
(answer : b)

6. Which organization develops standardized benchmarks for evaluating the performance of computer systems?
A) IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
B) ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
C) SPEC (Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation)
D) IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
(answer : c)
7. What is the purpose of using benchmarks in evaluating computer system performance?
A) To compare the cost of different computer systems
B) To measure the power consumption of a computer system
C) To assess the reliability of a computer system
D) To evaluate and compare the performance of computer systems
(answer : d)
8. Which of the following is a characteristic of PCI Express (PCIe) technology?
A) It uses a shared bus architecture
B) It has limited scalability
C) It supports point-to-point serial connections
D) It is primarily used for legacy devices
(answer : c)

Chapter 3:
1. What does the interconnection structure of a computer system facilitate?
A) Communication and data transfer between different computer components
B) Cooling of computer components to prevent overheating
C) Physical arrangement of components within the computer case
D) Power distribution to various components within the system
(answer : a)
2. What are the two main types of interconnection structures discussed in the chapter?
A) Serial and parallel
B) Hardware and software
C) Bus and point-to-point
D) Local and remote
(answer : c)
3. What is the role of a bus in computer interconnection?
A) To provide a dedicated connection between two components
B) To enable communication between multiple components using shared pathways
C) To connect a computer system to external devices such as printers and monitors
D) To store data temporarily for quick access by the CPU
(answer : b)
4. Which interconnection technology is characterized by a shared communication pathway among multiple
components?
A) Bus interconnection
B) Point-to-point interconnect
C) PCI Express
D) SATA
(answer : a)
5. What is PCI Express (PCIe) primarily used for in computer systems?
A) Connecting peripheral devices such as graphics cards and network adapters
B) Providing power to various components within the system
C) Cooling the CPU and other heat-generating components
D) Storing data and instructions temporarily
(answer : a)

6. What advantage does point-to-point interconnect offer over bus interconnection?

A) Higher scalability and bandwidth
B) Lower cost and complexity
C) Better compatibility with legacy devices
D) Easier expansion of the system
(answer : a)
7. What is the purpose of a PCI Express (PCIe) switch?
A) To connect the CPU to the main memory
B) To connect multiple PCIe devices to the system
C) To convert digital signals to analog signals
D) To regulate the flow of electrical power within the system
(answer : b)
8. Which of the following statements accurately describes the ARM architecture?
A) It is primarily used in high-performance desktop computers.
B) It is known for its complex instruction set.
C) It is commonly used in embedded systems and mobile devices.
D) It relies on the x86 instruction set architecture.
(answer : c)

Chapter 4:
1. What principle describes the tendency of a processor to access the same set of memory locations repeatedly during
program execution?
A) Principle of locality
B) Principle of caching
C) Principle of virtual memory
D) Principle of segmentation
(answer : a)
2. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of memory systems discussed in the chapter?
A) Capacity
B) Speed
C) Volatility
D) Color
(answer : d)
3. What is the purpose of the memory hierarchy in computer systems?
A) To provide redundancy for fault tolerance
B) To minimize power consumption
C) To balance cost and performance by integrating different types of memory
D) To increase the clock speed of the CPU
(answer : c)
4. How does the memory hierarchy improve system performance?
A) By exploiting the principle of locality to reduce average memory access time
B) By increasing the number of memory banks in the system
C) By reducing the capacity of the memory modules
D) By decreasing the clock speed of the CPU
(answer : a)
5. What performance metric is used to evaluate the effectiveness of a multilevel memory hierarchy?
A) Hit rate
B) Miss rate
C) Cache size
D) CPU clock speed
(answer : a)

6. What modeling technique is commonly used to analyze the performance of a multilevel memory hierarchy?
A) Analytical modeling
B) Statistical modeling
C) Simulation
D) Quantum modeling
(answer : a)
7. What is the miss penalty of a cache?
A) The time it takes to access data from the cache
B) The time it takes to fetch data from the next level of the memory hierarchy in case of a cache miss
C) The number of cache lines replaced during cache eviction
D) The probability of a cache hit occurring during a memory access
(answer : b)
8. Which of the following is NOT a key component of a multilevel memory hierarchy?
A) Cache memory
B) Main memory
C) Registers
D) Secondary storage
(answer : d)
Chapter 5:
1. What principle governs the design of cache memory to improve performance?
A) Principle of locality
B) Principle of parallelism
C) Principle of virtual memory
D) Principle of segmentation
(answer : a)
2. Which of the following is NOT an element of cache design?
A) Cache size
B) Cache replacement policy
C) Cache associativity
D) Memory address bus width
(answer : d)
3. What organization scheme is commonly used in Intel x86 processors for cache memory?
A) Direct-mapped cache
B) Fully associative cache
C) Set-associative cache
D) Block-associative cache
(answer : b)
4. What is the purpose of cache organization in the IBM z13 mainframe architecture?
A) To provide multiple cache levels for performance optimization
B) To implement non-volatile cache for data persistence
C) To support dynamic cache partitioning for workload management
D) To integrate cache directly into the processor core for reduced latency
(answer : a)
5. What performance metric is used to evaluate cache effectiveness?
A) Hit rate
B) Miss rate
C) Cache latency
D) Cache capacity
(answer : a,b)

6. What factor influences the choice between a direct-mapped, set-associative, or fully associative cache organization?
A) Cache size
B) Processor clock speed
C) Cache access latency
D) Memory address bus width
(answer : c)
7. What is the primary advantage of using set-associative or fully associative cache over direct-mapped cache?
A) Lower cache access latency
B) Higher cache capacity
C) Reduced cache conflicts
D) Simpler cache replacement policy
(answer : d)
8. What technology is commonly used in modern processors to implement cache memory?
A) SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
B) DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
C) Flash memory
D) Magnetic storage
(answer : a)
Chapter 6: