FORENSIC 1: Forensic Photography

Definition of Terms:
a. PHOTOGRAPHY - Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some sensitized material with the aid of a
camera, lens, and its accessories and the chemical process required in order to produce a photograph.
- derived from the Greek words “PHOS” or “PHOTOS” which means “light” and “GRAPHO” means “writing” or
“GRAPHIA” meaning “to draw”.
b. PHOTOGRAPH - is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.
c. FORENSIC – derived from the Latin word “FORUM” which means a “market place” where people gathered for public discussion.
- When the word forensic was used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to administration of justice. It is
sometimes used interchangeably with the word legal.
d. POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY – is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of photography, the preparation of
photographic evidence, and its application to police work.
e. FORENSIC PHOTGRAPHY – Is the art of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination and
analysis for purpose of court trial.
 1839 – generally known as the birth year of photography.

Important Personalities in Police Photography:

a. ALHAZEN (IBN AL-HAYTHAM) – An Arabian Scholar, who invented the first pinhole camera, also known as the Camera Obscura, a Latin
word for dark room.
b. JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE – Produce the first permanent photographic image on a summer day in 1826. The photographic image was
with a camera obscura. French inventor
c. LOUIS DAGUERRE – Developed a more convenient and effective method of photography, naming it after himself the Daguerreotype.
Daguerre was able to reduce exposure time to less than 30 minutes and keep the image from disappearing afterwards . Daguerreotype
created a lasting image, one that would not change if exposed to light. The daguerreotype was the first commercially successful
photographic process.
d. HENRY FOX TALBOT – He invented the first negative from which multiple positive prints. In 1841, calotype was introduced, negative
positive process using a paper negative. Calotype is a Greek for Beautiful picture.
e. JOHANN HEINRICH SCHULZE – He discovered that silver nitrate was sensitive to light, and worked out that silver salts changes color in
sunlight.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

 A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized
materials.
 Lights reflected or radiated by subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights must be excluded. The exclusion of all
unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a camera.
 The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the eyes. To make the formed images visible, it
must undergo the development process. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity and
quality of the exposing light. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development, too little will
produce a transparent or white shade. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

 Excellent aid to the investigator
 The first application of photography in law enforcement was confined to the problems of personal identification
 Record the scene of the crime permanently
 Can preserve all perishable evidence
 Can be used in the identification of articles and things which may be the object of investigation
 It is necessary in the interrogation of suspects. A series of photographs will show the action or reactions of the suspects at the time he made a
confession.
 Can provide a system or technique in making visible things that cannot be seen by our naked eye.
 Evidence that cannot be brought inside the court room can be presented by means of photograph
 Useful in court in the determination of the truth respecting a matter of fact.
 The photographs to be admitted as evidence in court must be the faithful representation of the original. Faithful representation means the
same likeness and accurateness as seen by the naked eye.

LIGHT - Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,282 miles per second.
Frequency - The number of waves passing in a given point in one second
Wavelength - Distance from the crest (highest point) to the wave to the next succeeding crest. Measured by the angstrom unit or in terms of milli-
microns (English system of measure) or nanometer (metric system of measure) which is equivalent to one over one millionth of a millimeter.
 Photographic Rays
a. X-RAY –.01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally
discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography.
b. ULTRA VIOLET RAY (before the violet) - 30 to 400 nanometer designed to photograph fingerprints in multi-colored background,
documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible writing. Also known as “black light”
c. VISIBLE LIGHT – 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing purposes.
i. Primary Colors: BLUE - 400 – 500 nm; GREEN – 500 – 600 nm; RED – 600 - 700 nm
ii. Secondary Colors: Cyan, Magenta and Yellow
iii. Color Mixing: red + blue = magenta; red + green = yellow; blue + green = cyan
d. INFRA- RED (beyond the red) = considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It
is designed to take photograph of over written documents. Obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography.
(Sometimes referred to as heat rays.)
R.A.T
o Reflected - once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back.
o Absorbed – when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from either bouncing or passing through.
o Transmitted – when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through.
 TYPES OF LIGHT
 1. VISIBLE LIGHT – is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is the type of light, which is
capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
2. INVISIBLE LIGHT – light in which their wavelength is either too short or too long to excite the retina of the human eye i.e. x-ray,
Ultra violet and infra-red lights.
 Methods Of Forming Images By Means Of Light:
a. PINHOLE Method – the oldest method of forming image where a box camera with a very small hole without lens is to collect
light and form images.
Pinhole Camera – simplest camera which consist of a box with a small hole in one of its sides
b. SHADOW Method – this method is the principle involved in the use of X-ray machine.
c. LENS Method – the modern method of forming image by light action passing a lens.
Bending of Light
1. Reflection – is the deflection or bouncing back of the light when it hits a surface.
2. Refraction – it is the bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
3. Diffraction - is the bending of light when hits a sharp edge of an opaque objects.
Medium of Light
1. Transparent objects – medium that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to pass freely in other respects, transmit 90% or more
of the incident light.
2. Translucent objects – mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a way that the outline of the source of light is not clearly visible;
transmit 50% or less of the incident light.
3. Opaque objects – medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow light to pass through.

 LIGHT SOURCE
A. NATURAL LIGHT – are those light which come to existence without the shadow and the object appears glossy. Ex. Sunlight, moon
and starlight.
a) Bright Sunlight – object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object appears glossy.
b) Hazy Sunlight – object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds that cover the sun.
c) Dull Sunlight – object in open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.
d) Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight, hazy light, cloudy sunlight and cloudy
dull sunlight.
B. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT – otherwise known as man-made light e. g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous Radiation:
a) Photoflood lamp – is likewise known as reflectorized light or spot light. It is a light with a reflector at the back which focuses the
light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
b) Fluorescent Lamp – are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a
holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in photographing.
c) Incandescent bulb – are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the electrical charge that produces the
light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.
2. Short Duration Type
a) Flash Bulb - are chemical lamps, as it generates light by the rapid combination of the metal in oxygen. The bulb can be
used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical
contracts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that
ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminium foil that burns, giving flash of tense light.
b) Electronic Flash – produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass
bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and
1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photographs.
 Current Light – light that is scattered
 Coherent light – light that is aligned such as laser light
 Hologram – the information of image through the use of laser
FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCE
1. Ultra-violet lamp
- A gas lamp burning carbon disulphide vapor in oxygen or in nitric acid. Common to all people as black light
2. Infrared lamp – special type of artificial light that is capable of producing infrared radiation. It is useful in photographing the objects or
subjects at dark places.
3. LASER - (Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation) – Ignificant in locating dried biological stains such as semen, urine
and saliva, as well stains that had been washed. Also known as “coherent light”

CAMERA
 Is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image; with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image; a means of holding a
film to record the image/and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is.
 Basically, camera can produce image with its four (4) basic such as light tight box lens and shutter, holder of sensitized material.
Camera Classifications:
Camera classified as according to:
1. The size of the film they use or format of the picture they produce.
a. Large format cameras – these cameras have bellows and use sheet films in the size 4”x5”, 5”x7” and 8”x10”
b. Medium format cameras – some of this cameras are folding type of bellows and some are rigid-body with film size of 12,220 ,
70mm. The double lens reflex camera falls under this category
c. Small format cameras – those film size 126, 110, 35mm., 16mm and 8mm.
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. LIGHT – is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186,000 miles per second.
2. CAMERA – a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.
3. LENS – is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light coming from the object to form the image.
4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL – composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being transformed into an image
through the action of light and with some chemical processes. (film and Photo paper)
5. CHEMICAL PROCESS - is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent image and positive image be made
resulting to what we called photograph.
Essential parts of the camera
1. Light tight box (body) – has the capability to exclude all unwanted light that might expose the sensitized material or film an enclosure
that devoid light.
 2. Lens – responsible in focusing the rays of light coming from the subject, without lens, the sharpness of the image on the film would be
impossible, diaphragm of the lens is represented by f-number.
3. Film Holder – grips the film firmly inside the camera, always located at the opposite side of the lens.
4. Shutter – serves as the barrier of the rays of light that will enter and affect the film inside the camera , usually placed at the path of the
light passing through the lens.
5. View Finder or Viewer – the viewing system. Will show the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the film inside the camera,
usually attached on the top or side of the camera in a single lens reflex type.
Other parts of Camera
1. Film advancer – It is necessary so that the exposed film can be wind or transferred to take up spool and the unexposed film will be on the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
2. Shutter speed – control the duration between the opening and the closing of the shutter. It will regulate the quantity of light that will
reach and affect the film inside the camera.
3. Lens Aperture – the ratio between the diameter and the focal length of the lens, the light gathering power of the lens, the rays of light
passing through the lens aperture can be controlled by its opening.
4. Focusing Mechanism – the sharpness or clearness of the objects being photographed will depend upon the focusing system of the
camera, this mechanism will estimate the object distance from the camera and forms a sharp or clear image in the photograph.
Camera Accessories
a. Tripod – triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension, used in holding the camera when it is bulky or when using a
shutter speed lower than one twenty five of a second to prevent the movement that will produced a blurred images in the photographs.
b. Cable Release – this is attach to the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the camera during the exposure period especially when
longer exposure is made.
c. Flash Units – flash bulbs or electronic flash, synchronized with the opening and closing of the shutter, effective to augment the adverse
lighting condition of the objects being photographed, with the use of this accessories the motion of the subject can be arrested.
d. Light Meter – device use in determining the intensity of light that strike the subjects and affect the film
Types:
i. Extinction meter - the reflected light from the shadow as seen by the naked eye is estimated or calculated by direct observation of
the photographer
ii. Photoelectric meter - the most dependable device that will measure the brightness of light.
It is pointed toward the subjects to be photographed and converted the light collected into electric energy that makes the needle of
the meter to move across it scale. The reading is taken and the conversion table gives the proper exposure.
e. Extension Tube – device use in photographing a minute objects, attached to the lens board of the camera and the lens is attached to it
when close-up photography is necessary.
f. Filter – transparent medium which transmits and absorbs different wavelength of lights. They are usually made of glass or gelatin
materials placed in front or behind of the camera lens. It will correct and control the rays of light that will produce a good color.
g. Lens Hood – device used to eliminate some reflection of lights which might destroy the image cast by the objects, especially, when the
light is coming from the top or side portions of the camera, usually mounted in front of the lens barrel.
h. Camera grip – device used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or movement of the camera during the exposure
period, usually attached to the body of the camera.
Film Photography
Although digital photography has gained dominance over film photography, there are still professionals who would argue that film is still
the best way to capture images because of its incredible ability to record detail in a very stable form.
The most popular of film cameras is the 35mm SLR ( single lens reflex camera). Film cameras are loaded with a film without having it fogged by
light.
● Photographic film - is defined as a thin, transparent, flexible acetate or polyester base, coated with light-sensitive emulsion used in a
camera to record a photographic image. They should always be kept in a cool place, out of direct sunlight, in low humidity, and away
from all sources of chemical fumes.
Types of Film Speed
● Slow Films – are best for scenes where the light is bright. They often have a brighter detail and give the sharpest image. This film is ideal
for subjects that need to be enlarged while still retaining a lot of detail and fine-grained image.
● Medium-speed film – Is suitable for a wide range of different subjects and lighting conditions. It can also be used in less light earlier or
later in the day when the sun is much lower in the sky.
● Fast Films – are used for low-light situations where a less-sensitive, slower film may result in underexposure. The quality, however, is not
as good as the slower film speeds.

Methods of Image Formation

 Pinhole – is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely free from distortion but its image is so dim that it is impractically long
even if the fastest film is used.
 Shadow Method – Image form by this method is simply the shadow of an object. The chief of application of this method is in X-ray
photography and in making photogram.
 Lens Method – this is the best method of image formation because it is capable of forming sharp image even with a large opening so it is
suited for a camera.
LENS
 Daniel Barbaro – Introduced the use of lens in a camera
 Lens is a transparent medium which either converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image
 Using a good lens and the right lens will produce a faithful reproduction of the original objects as seen by the naked eye.
TYPES OF LENS
1. Convergent/positive/convex lens – light passing through it are bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at a
point. It produce a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from. Modern lenses are based on convex lens
which can collect a large number of light rays from a single point.
2. Divergent/negative/concave lens – always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides
- light passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point
- it produce a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from
**This type of lens is exactly what is needed as the camera lens that will served as the camera viewfinder.
INHERENT LENS DEFECT
1. Spherical aberration – failure of the lens to bring all rays of light in focus at the same time. The marginal portion of the lens will bring the
rays of light to a shorter focus than the central region.
2. Coma – unequal magnifying power of the different concentric zones of the lens cause this defect.
- Concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely.
 3. Curvature of Field – the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in a curved surface than a flat surface.
4. Distortion – defect in shape not in sharpness
- Incapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in an object
- Caused by the placement of diaphragm.
Kinds of Distortion
a. Barrel distortion – If the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens, straight lines near the edges of the object tends to bulge outside.
b. Pincushion distortion – If the diaphragm is placed behind the lens, straight lines near the edges tends to bend inward.
5. Chromatic Aberration – Inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wavelengths to the same focus. Inability of the lens to
focus all the visible rays/ colors.
6. Astigmatism – a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both
horizontal and vertical lines. With this defect, a single point from a subject falling near the margin of the negative will be imaged not as a
point but as a two perpendicular short lines, one of which is always out of focus while the other is sharp.
Types of Lens According To Their Degree Of Correction
 Achromatic lens - corrected for chromatic aberration
 Rapid-rectilinear lens - corrected for distortion
 Anastigmatic lens - corrected for astigmatism as well as other lens defect; it has the ability to focus a vertical and horizontal lines at the
same time
 Apochromatic lens - corrected for astigmatism but with higher degree of correction to color.
 Simple meniscus lens - usually found in simple or box camera.
 Fixed focus lens - used in all fixed focus camera; basically, it has short focal length and greater depth of field

Focal Length
 It is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or focused at a distant object
 This will determine the size of an image of object at a given distance, and the area coverage of the lens
 Normally indicated in the lens mount or barrel of a camera, usually in millimeter (mm) or in centimeter (cm)
Types of Lenses According To Focal Length
1. Wide angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material
-this lens will have a wide area of coverage but produces a small image size
-usually used in taking pictures indoor or inside a small room
-also used outdoor to get a panoramic view of a scene
2. Telephoto Lens
- A lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative material
- This lens produces a bigger image of objects at far distance but its area coverage is smaller.
3. Normal Lens
- Lens with a focal length approximately equal or more but not more than twice the diagonal of its negative material
- Referred as normal because its coverage corresponds to nearly the coverage of the human eye.
4. Zoom Lens
- Lens with variable focal length
LENS DIAPHRAGM
 found in between the lens component of a cameral which can be expanded or constricted by moving a turning ring on the lens barrel
 represented by f-numbers, each f number represents the ration of the focal length of the lens and the diameter of the opening
The diaphragm serves as:
1. Diaphragm as controller of speed – by expanding or constricting the diaphragm, it is possible to regulate the amount of light passing
through the lens. It serves as a speed throttle.
- In the series of f-numbers, the lowest number is the widest opening or the one that give the most amount of light, the highest number is
the smallest opening or the one that give the least amount of light.
2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of field
 Depth of field – defined as the distance between the nearest and the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or
focused on a given distance
 Hyperfocal distance – the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm opening which will give the
maximum depth of field.
Focus
- defined as the physical point at which rays of light from a lens converge to form a properly defined image of the subject . The
sharpness or focus of a photograph will make a difference in a court of law. If the jury can see exactly what has taken place through a series of
photographs that are clear and concise, the evidence will be much easier to understand.
Methods of focusing:
1. Scale-bed or focusing scale – on the amount or barrel of the camera lens there are two sets of pre-setted distance expressed in feet (ft.)
and in meters (m). These distances correspond to the distance from the camera lens to the subject.
2. Rangefinders – is a mechanism used to measure the angle of convergence of light as seen from two apertures or opening but viewed at
the same time. In modern cameras, the rangefinder is coupled with the viewfinder.
Two types of Rangefinder:
A. Spilt-image
With this type, when one looks through the viewfinder of a camera, there is a circle on the central part with a line running
across the circle. To determine focus with this type, pick a straight line in the subject and view it on the circle. If the straight line is cut and
separated from each other, the focusing is not corrected. Rotate the barrel of the lens until the said straight line is viewed as straight and
the lens are in focus.
B. Co-incident image
This method of focusing is usually used on compact cameras with fixed lens. With this type, when you look into the viewfinder,
you`ll notice a rectangle- in other cameras its circle- on the upper left portion of the viewfinder. To focus with this method, pick a single
detail in the subject for viewing in the viewfinder. If the single detail chosen appears with double image, the distance or focus is incorrect.
Rotate the lens barrel until two images viewed will coincide with each other and you are in focus.

SHUTTERS – It is a device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for an accurately timed interval then closes automatically.
EXPOSURE – It is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a change on a material of substance sensitive to such energy.
- Is defined as the amount of light received by a photographic emulsion or imaging clip . Overall exposure is the product of the intensity of
the light, the aperture size, and the shutter speed (Hedgecoe, 2005).
EXPOSURE CONTROL
1. Shutter Speed Control - Determines the length of time that the film is exposed to light. The numbers found on the control corresponds to
fractions of a second.
2. Lens Aperture or Opening
 The size of the lens opening in your camera is the other factor that determines the amount of light that reaches the film. The
indicator on the camera for the degree of light passing through the camera lens is called the “f” number.
 The smaller the “f” number, the smaller the opening and vice versa. Much like fast films and slow films, there are fast and slow
lenses. A fast lens, for instance, is one that transmits a lot of light. The user should be cautious, however, since fast lenses do not
produce the sharpest images.
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS
There are two types of filters used in photography:
1. OPTICAL FILTER – Optical filters are made either of glass or acetate. These are used primarily to control exposing energy (visible
wavelengths, ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working illumination in areas where sensitized materials are handled.
2. PARTICLE OR SOLUTION FILTER – This is used in special photographic procedure like in infrared luminescence. Most pictures are taken by
white light falling on a colored object. For our purpose we consider white light as composed of the three primary light colors. When one
or two of theses colors is subtracted or absorbed, we see the remaining color.
TYPES OF FILTER:
A. Light Balancing filter – used to change the color quality of the exposing light in order to secure proper color balance for artificial light
films.
B. Color compensating filter – used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result obtained with color films and to compensate
for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.
C. Neutral Density filter – used when light is too bright to allow the used of desired f-number or shutter speed with a particular film.
D. Polarizing filter – used to reduce or minimize reflections on subjects like water glass, and highly polished surfaces.

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY:
A. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION/IDENTIFICATION PURPOSES
 Prisoners, persons subject of investigation
 Unidentified cadavers
 Missing Persons
 Loss of stolen properties
 Civilian
B. RECORD AND PRESERVING OF EVIDENCE – considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.
 Crime Scenes (RPC)
 Traffic Accidents
 Objects of Evidences (guns, bullets, clothing, etc.)
 Evidential Traces (fingerprint, Bloodstains, etc.)
C. FOR DISCOVERING AND PROVING – evidences not readily seen by the naked eye. Photography can extend human vision in discovering
and proving things such as:
a. The use of Magnification
 Photomicrography – taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound
microscope so as to show minute details of the physical evidence.
 Photomacrography – taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extend tube lens (macro lens) to
the camera.
 Microphotography – the production of photographs in which the image of an object is reproduced much smaller than it actually
is. It is the process of reducing into a small strip of film a scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.
b. Used of artificial Light such as X ray, Ultra violet and Infra-red rays to show something which may not be visible with the aid of
human eye alone.
D. RECORDING ACTION OF THE  Re-enactment of crime
OFFENDERS  COURT EXHIBITS
 Surveillance  Individual photographs
 Entrapment  Slide projection
 Extra-judicial  Comparison charts
confession  Motion picture or video coverage /presentation
E. CRIME PREVENTION
 Visual presentation for lectures in traffic education, modus operandi of “con game artists”, snatchers and hold-uppers, civil
defense, information services shared with other local or foreign police organization, business establishments and industrial
complex security.
F. PUBLIC INFORMATION
 Photographs for press releases, posters of wanted criminals, crime alerts, etc.
G. POLICE TRAINING
 Prepared training films or video presentations of personnel indoctrination, police tactics, investigative techniques, traffic
control, civil disturbances control, documentaries for pre and post-briefing on police operations, etc.
H. REPRODUCING AND COPYING
Different Views in Photographing
a) Extreme close up view – commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as photomacrography
and photomicrography.
b) Close up view – is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is design to show the details of
the crime.
c) Medium View – is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This view will best view the
nature of the crime
d) General view – taking an overall view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of the crime scene.
SPECIFIC APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY TO POLICE WORK
1. Identification Photographs – An identification photograph should be an accurate likeness of the subject, from which he can be
recognized by witnesses or police officers. (Mug-shot photography)
 - In taking photographs of unknown cadavers for identification purposes, the face should be washed and cleared of mud, dirt,
grease, or other foreign matters before the picture taking.
- A data board bearing the name of the subject or his alias, the police department or unit handling the case, case number, the
date, are some of information that are usually included in the photographs.
- In photographing objects of evidence or evidential traces to show their original appearance and condition when received for
laboratory examination, the standard procedure on lighting, camera position, data board, and a ruler or measuring device placed at the
bottom side of the subject must be observed at all times.
A. General Consideration
 The purpose of crime scene photographs is to give a documented record of the scene as it is observed. The photographers
should begin taking photographs of the scene as soon as possible upon arriving on the area. This will assure that the scene is
depicted as it is observed in its original uninterrupted state. Nothing should be touched, moved or initiated into the scene until it
has been thoroughly photographed and documented.
 The goal is to record useful information in a series of photographs which will enable the viewer to understand where and how
the crime was committed. The crime scene not only refers to the immediate locality in which the crime took place, but also to
adjacent areas where important acts took place immediately before or after the crime was committed.
 Photographs of the broad area of the crime scene should be supplemented by closer shots of sections containing important
detail. Each area or object should be photographed so that it can be located readily in the overall pictures, which will enable the
viewer to gain a clear concept of its position with reference to other objects at the scene.
SEQUENTIAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CRIME SCENE
Each crime has individual features that should be photographed. Keep in mind the nature of the offense and try to show those features that
establish the elements of the offense. The following photographs should be taken.
 Views of the exterior of the building/vehicle, with relation to other buildings/vehicles, roads, streets, etc.
 Point of entry, outside and inside
 Point of exit, outside and inside
 Condition (s) of the crime scene
 Area from which valuable articles were removed
 Articles left at the scene
 Trace evidence, such as hairs, fibers, and cigarette butts
 Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks
 Fingerprints and footprints, as well as articles on which these prints may be found.
Specific situations and instances to be photographed in the crime scene is discussed in further detail in the next chapter.

PHOTOGRAPHERS LOG
 When responding to a case, a record of the data regarding the circumstances surrounding or related to the picture taking of the crime
scene must be noted for instant recollection.
SPECIFIC CRIMES
Here are some suggestions of what photographs to take on the following common crimes. The guideline on this subject is the nature
of the offense and the elements of crime.
1. Homicide or Murder
1.-A. Manner of Death – to help explain how the crime took place, show from several angles the whole scene and all possible elements of the
crime.
a. General consideration
1. Exterior of the building including surrounding areas which will show the place and manner of entry or exit, places of
concealment, visibility of various points, shoe or footprints, tire impressions, broken branches or shrubs, etc.
2. The room or area where the body was found. Also adjoining the rooms.
3. Evidence of struggle such as overturned chairs, broken objects or articles in disarray.
4. Signs of activities prior to the occurrence like the presence of playing cards, bottles of liquor, cigarette butts, T.V. or radio sets
on, etc..
5. Traced evidences like marks of conflict on the body, on clothing`s, tracks of bloodstains, fingerprints, shoe or footprints,
fragments of glass, metal and other potential clue material.
To show the body in the scene and its position in relation to the articles in the room, at the least two photographs of the body should
be taken at right angle to each other and the camera position drawn from the normal position of an observer.
Cause of Death
a. Crimes involving firearms
 In photographing the body, it should include views from the direction in which the weapon was apparently fired and another from the
opposite directions to show the area from which the firearm was fired.
 The usual technique adopted to show the path of the bullet is to stretch a white cord or string from the body to apparent point of
discharge or from the body to the bullet hole walls or ceiling or where imbedded and recovered.
 For indoor scenes, take photographs or marks of bullets on impact with walls or other solid object from the point of fire. Take pictures of
the height of bullet holes from the floor and its distances to adjoining walls. Close up photographs of bullet holes with a scale and one
without for possible determination of the calibre of the weapon, recovered bullets, cartridges, or shells on the walls or furniture`s.
 For outdoor scenes, photographs should be taken to show possible long trajectory or ricochet. Angle of direction of fire from many
possibilities like shooting from another building, from behind a tree or structure, from a vehicle (idle or moving) and a list of other
possibilities.
b. Hanging
 If the body was found undisturbed, the photograph that will help determine the manner of death is in an over-all views of the body and
the rope taken at torso and foot level. Show the length of the body to the ground.
 Close-up shots are the knot, its size, type and location on the neck, depth and location of the groove in the neck, black and blue marks
along the groove (use of color film is adviced), signs of violence about the neck, protrusion of the tongue, or binding in the hands or feet.
c. Drowning
 In this case, the body is usually the object of interest crime since itself is uncertain except the location of where the body was found
floating or snagged.
 Photograph the whole body both from the standing observer position and from ground level position. Close-up shots should show any
foam in the mouth, the mouth whether open or closed wounds if any, peculiar markings, and unusual discolorations. Articles found in
the hand or clothing`s, use of color film is also adviced.
d. By Electrecution
  In case of death by electrecution, the usual photographs are taken in the area of scene particularly the cause of the current flow, or from
the originated like exposed wires, cracked insulations, presence of water near or surrounding the body, the accessibility of metal fixtures
to the deceased original position at the time of the shock, etc..
e. Explosion
To be considered in selecting objects that should be photographed are the following:
a. Nature of the explosive device- homemade, dynamite, liquid chemical, bomb or other military hardware or stuff. Strewn about the
scene are parts and pieces, fragments of its container, fuse, tapes, wires, cloths and papers, metal parts that are imbedded on walls
or other objects at the scene.
b. Undetonated parts of the explosive- they may be found at distances from the point of explosion.
c. Traces of liquid explosives- stains on clothing`s, curtains, or walls, particles of wax paraffin, or spillage at the approaches of the
scene.
d. Point of origin- the exact spot where the thing is placed and probably open windows or doors where it was thrown.
e. Conditions of household items- these may be objects which will show whether the explosions was due to faulty gas line, gas leaks
from the gas valve, ruptured pipes or fittings, etc.
2. Robbery Case
 General view of the exterior of the building
 Points of break or entry mark of force should be shown clearly with both medium views and close-ups.
 Point of exit
 Condition of the room
 Places where valuable materials were removed
 Articles left behind like burglary tools (screw drivers, crowbars, metal saw, etc.)
 Trace evidences like fibers adhering on window frames, soil, cigarette butts, burned matches, powders, toolmarks, shoe or footprints
which includes the places where they are found or developed.
3. Sex Offenses
 In the crime of rape, the photographs to be taken are the place of incidence, signs of struggle or resistance on the part of the victim
and objects of evidence.
 The photograph of general view should probably show the remoteness of the area to normal traffic or its distance to the nearest
dwelling place or that the place is not a normal meeting place for social purpose.
 Close-up should be shown buttons removed from cloths, torn clothing or garments, hairs or fibers, presence of biological stains like
blood or semen. On the body of the victim are signs like contusions, bruises or wounds.
4. Arson or Fire
The photographs to be taken during the progress of the fire are the following:
 Area of the origin
 Rapidity, direction and manner of spread of the fire.
 The nature of the burning substance as indicated by the color of the smoke, and color and size of the flame.
 The progressive stages of the burning as shown from various angles and significant changes taking place.
 Unusual arrangements of doors and windows
 Identity of spectators. The arsonist usually returns to the scene to witness the burning.
 For exterior view- all sides of the building to show the extent of damage.
 For the interior view look for the following:
 Presence of incendiary devices or materials.
 Significant arrangements that are suspicious or that shows planned burning.
 Burned areas with deepest intensity or the apparent origin of he fire as seen by witness or firemen at the alleged point of origin of
the fire, take a medium shot to identify the location then close-up photograph of the following:
a. Electrical – entrances, meters, fuses, switches, and any evidence of tampering or repair.
b. Gas – valves, piping`s, connections and also signs of tampering or repair.
c. Fire distinguisher – its operating mechanism to determine whether operational or defective.
 During the search for clues, the photographer should be round so he can immediately photograph it.
5. Traffic Vehicular Accidents
The following are the basic rules in photographing road/traffic accidents for SOCO and Field Laboratory Work (FLW).
 Avoid unnecessary surrounding/objects that are not pertinent to the case.
 Photographs should be taken from the eye level of the driver. If there are witnesses, photographs should be taken at their level from the
spot where they have seen the incident.
 Shots should be taken from the four points of the compass and 25 feet from the point of impact to show the approach and terrain.
 Take close-up shots of the damaged area in two angles from a distance of eight to ten feet.
 Take shots in order and properly note at the photograph notes in order to guide the investigator on how the accident occurred.
 Special care should be taken when photographing a hit and run case.
What to photograph:
 All vehicles in their original position
 All victims
 Debris that indicate where the first impact occurred
 License plate of vehicles (at least one photograph of each vehicle)
 All skid and tire marks, patches of oil or water
 If the vehicle has gone off the road and has made marks in soil, these should be photographed. They may give indication of the speed
of the vehicle.
 A close mark made in asphalt roadway should be taken to indicate the texture of the road.
 The vicinity of the accident that does not include the accident itself (for reference point).
6. Mug-shot Photography
For taking mug shots of suspects, photograph the subject in front of the height scale without footwear to determine his/her
exact height. Let the subject hold the case verifier. Mug shots should be done in the following angles with the case number displayed at
each shot.
1. Front view, whole body
2. Front view (half body-head to elbow)
3. Left Side view (half body-head to elbow)
4. Right Side view (half body-head to elbow)
The PNP also has a compilation of facial features called the Composite Criminal Illustration, which is taken from photographs
with descriptive details provided. This serves as an aid in an investigation where evidence is limited and the suspect is unknown. It has been
found to be useful in obtaining descriptions of unknown suspects. It also gets the public involved in the identification of suspects.
 7. Surveillance Photography
The purpose of surveillance photography is to gather pertinent facts or information, or evidence of illegal acts of persons or if a
place is being used for illegal activities. While still photographs can be used to identify a person or a place; motion picture or videography
should be used to record an act or activity. With still photography, there is always that chance at the moment of picture taking, the may
bend down or turn to another direction or another person, vehicle or another object may obstruct the view but motion picture or video
will avoid the possibility because of the large number of frames to choose from.
The main difference of this type of photography to that ordinary photography is the requirement of secrecy. To achieve this,
either the photograph is taken under cover of great distance or if at close distance, the camera is cleverly concealed so the picture taking
is without the knowledge of the subject. To be more effective, the photographer must train or learn to take photographs blindly or
without looking at the viewfinder of the still camera or the monitor of a video camera. The use of a wide angle lens for close distance and
a small lens diaphragm for greater depth of field will certainly be a great help.
8. Fingerprint Photography
Fingerprint is a record of the pattern of friction ridges of the skin of the fingers. Fingerprints left accidentally at the scene of a
crime or those impressed on a fingerprint card of an individual are photographed to serve the following purpose:
1. Makes permanent record of fingerprints
2. Will bring out faint fingerprints which cannot be studied by the naked eye but often are great value for identification purposes.
3. It can magnify a fingerprint to almost any extent desired.
4. Will make possible the side-by-side comparisons of magnified fingerprints for the courts to see whether or not two or more
fingerprints are identical in detail.
Types of Fingerprints
1. Plain or black fingerprints on black or dark background.
2. White fingerprints on black or dark background.
3. Black fingerprint on colored background.
4. Black fingerprint on multi-coloured background.
5. Fingerprints on glass, plastic materials or on polished metal.
6. Fingerprints on paper
7. Fingerprints on mirror
9. Questioned Documents Photography
a. General use of Photography in Questioned Documents Examination:
1. Documents submitted for examination should be photographed immediately for record purposes, a good photographic copy of
the documents can be used for case study thereby freeing the possible soiling or mutilation of the original document.
Moreover, when two or more examiners have to examine the same document for a collegial expert opinion, it can easily be
replicated so every examiner can examine the document at the same time without bothering one another.
2. Magnification. Handwriting and typewriting`s are both too small in their original sizes to study and determine whether it is
genuine or forgery so they have to be enlarged.
3. Side by side comparison. Many people cannot see points of identity or difference until objects that are compared are placed
side-by-side. Photographs can be cut apart so the portions to be compared are placed side by side.
b. Areas of photographing concern:
1. Handwritings a) Type of design
a) Form of the handwriting b) Alignment
b) Line quality c) Slant
c) Patching d) Evenness of impression
d) Sequence of crossed lines e) Defective characters
e) Writing over fold f) Substitution
f) Differentiation of inks or pencils g) Identity of the operato
2. Typewriting
3. Papers
a) Erasures
1. Mechanical-sidelight photography
2. Chemical-ultraviolet or infra-red photography
b) Paper identification (watermarks)-transmitted light photography
c) Eliminations of paper background-use of filters
4. Other Concerns
a. Faded writings
b. Indented writings
c. Obliterated writings
d. Restoring erased writing
e. Stamped out writing
f. Burned papers ( charred or burnt)
g. Equipment and materials that are used in questioned documents photography are the same as those used in fingerprint
photography. The only addition is those used in infrared photography like infrared film, a Wratten filter no. 87. Another area of
difference is in size of photographic papers used, normally the 11”x14”, or 16”x24” (sheet or rolled).
10. Ultraviolet Photography
Ultraviolet (UV) light is defined as part of the electromagnetic spectrum from about 400nm to 1nm. UV light is invisible to the
human eye but strongly affects photographic materials.
Utilizing ultraviolet light is an essential tool on crime investigators who need to show details unseen in natural light. Its
application can be useful, for example in forgeries and document alterations, fingerprint enhancements and tracing bodily fluids or
gunpowder residue.
11. Infrared Photography
Infrared photography is the recording of images formed by infrared radiation. Because infrared radiation is invisible some
special techniques may be needed. But, in general, most of the commonly required methods are as simple as those of ordinary
photography.
USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
1. Questioned Documents
2. Aerial Photography
3. Surveillance Photography
4. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities in cloth.
5. Detection of certain types of secret writings
PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE
 BASIC RULES ON ADMISSIBILITY
It is an established fact that a photograph offered in evidence should be a true and faithful representation of the scene or
subject matter. The person viewing it should get an impression of the scene or object which does not mislead in any of the important
aspect. It should be free from unusual distortion of lines, shapes, and color or any deceptive tone relationship. Important subjects should
be in sharp focus.
In the Philippines, the admissibility of a photograph as evidence was rule in the case: City of Manila vs. Cabangis 10 Phil, 151 a
photograph is admissible in evidence upon a proof of exactness and accuracy. “That the photograph is a true and faithful representation
of the subject seen by the naked eye.
Who are qualified to show proof of faithfulness?
1. The photographer who took the photograph.
2. Any other person who has personal knowledge of the taking of the photograph and have seen the subject.
It must be mentioned that the requirement of law on “accuracy” is not mathematical but substantive.
Evidence photographs may be divided into two categories:
 That which represent an object of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or verbal description of it.
 Those who which are designed to prove a point bearing an issue on a case such as a comparison chart of a fingerprint, handwriting or test
bullets or shells.
Techniques for Demonstrating Evidence Prints
1. Composite Exhibits – this consists of two photographs placed side by side to show points of similarities or differences. This is generally
used in the comparison of fingerprint or handwriting.
2. Matching Photographs – this is another technique of illustrating similarities. Place a part of one photograph over and in careful alignment
with the other. Used in tool marks, shells, pair illustration or in matching glass fragments or paint chips.
3. Matching Transparencies – this is used to show two objects have identical outline. A positive transparency of one is placed over the
other, adjusted so the outlines coincide, like in proving traced forgery.
Degree of Enlargement or size of a Photograph Exhibit
1. A large display print which will easily show the Judge, the lawyers` detailed attributes of a subject being testified to by a witness. Forensic
experts like document examiner or fingerprint experts use this to provide a dramatic impact on their testimony.
2. A more widely used and easier to accomplish is the handheld prints of persons, object, place or incident.
Points of Objection on the Admissibility of a Photograph
1. Accuracy of Color 6. Equipment
2. Alteration on Negatives or on prints 7. Lighting
3. Computer generated image 8. Markings on photographs such as lines, circles, arrows, numbers,
4. Enlargement etc. are to be avoided except on comparison chart
5. Errors in printing
Photographs and Eyewitness Compared
1. Failing Common to Both
a. Exaggeration – photographs may exaggerate just like a human being.
b. Elaboration – in general it is better to show too much than too little, it is well to remember that close up usually have the most
value provided they either show enough of the subject to avoid deception by omission or supplemented by more distant views.
c. Omission – we swear the witness to tell the truth, and nothing but the truth because it is known that the partial truth may be a
lie.
d. Reversal of left and right – photograph are easier to be turned around so that it is reversed from left to right.
e. Optical illusions – both witness and the photograph may give false testimony because of the effect of optical illusions.
Shortcomings of an Eyewitness
a. Perception error – Human eye is not just an image recording device, it is highly developed organ and is in fact a part of the brain. Many of
the mistakes of the testimony of a witness are due to error in perception which is the integration of all the sensory impression (sight,
smell, touch, sound, etc.)
b. Language problem – Any person may have some difficulty in adequately expressing himself when he becomes a witness in court. The
reliability of a description of a giver person, place, or thing depends largely upon his ability to say what he means in a language the court
will understand.
c. Memory lapse – Not only is a witness prone to error because of faulty perception and language problem but also subject to the very
human trait of forgetting. His testimony is usually what he thinks or remembers he saw. Here again the photograph is superior as a
witness because it never forgets.
d. Hallucination – when considering the testimony of an eyewitness must be born in mind that there is always the possibility that he did not
see what he thinks he saw because he was the victim of hallucination, trick of the sense causing a person to imagine he sees something
that is not really present at all.
Shortcomings of Photographs
a. Single viewpoint
- Generally a photograph is likely to be considered as an accurate reproduction of a scene or object, whereas, as a matter of fact,
except in the case of a document, a picture is best only considered as a fair representation of a subject.
b. Compression of time
- A still photograph speaks as one of the brief instant of time and even a motion picture only record a definite period of time. By
compressing time therefore, a photograph even a motion picture may create misleading impression if we do not interpret it properly.
c. Necessity of interpretation by a trier of fact
- Just as the testimony of a human witness must be interpreted by the trier of fact, so also the photograph must be evaluated if
it is to mean anything as evidence.

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
 Law enforcement is always in the process of evolving due to scientific, legal and social developments as well as in the changes in behavior
of criminals.
 In the field of Photography, a global revolution is also taking place and at a very fast rate. Because of the diversity of equipment and
technology available, digital photography is becoming more popular than conventional photography.
Digital Photography – this type of camera digitalize the image which can then be put into a computer and enhanced through a software package as
Adobe Photoshop
Types of Digital Camera:
1. Those with fixed memory – this camera has limited number of image that can be capture
2. Those with removable memory – this camera allow the user to load and replace a variety of storage cards
Advantages of Digital Photography
Digital Photography`s universal format is its greatest advantage because of the ff:
  Images can easily be transferred to multiple devices and applications. Examples of these applications are the addition of images to word
processing format, E-mail, putting on Website, or the simple editing of these images, manipulate or enhance or improve them.
 Armed with RAM and CCD chips instead of films, digital cameras are slowly taking over the market in photography.
o First, it is because digital cameras offer features and convenience unheard of in a film-based camera like:
a. Instant color preview
b. Computer Connectivity
c. Video output
d. Detachable lenses that still work when detached.
o Secondly, because digital cameras remove film processing from the equation and save the users more than enough money to justify
their relatively high cost.
Disadvantage of Digital Photography
 Its ability to be easily manipulated which will inevitably prevent its widespread use in a courtroom.
 Digital cameras are not sensitive to light as the film-based cameras.
 They require more light to make an exposure.
 The shutter lag or delay between pressing the shutter button and actually capturing of the image can lead to missed opportunity.
 The LCD viewfinder can sometimes be hard to see on a bright day.
 Camera battery life is limited due to the abundance of computerized parts.
Computer printers
1. DOT-MATRIX – Instead of completing an image in one single stroke, a dot-matrix printer produces an image that is built-up by individual
dots. These dots are made-up by pins:
 In 9-pin printers the dots are more apparent
 In 24-pin printers they are less or so
2. Laser Printers – also produce dots. The laser projects a light against a spinning mirror which flashes light to a rotating drum. The printing
toner adheres electrostatically to the charged areas of the drum and then fused to the paper creating characters. Color laser printers are also
available.
3. Ink-jet Printers – Is basically an ink-jets fire droplet of ink at a page to make the dots that forms the characters. Ink-jet printers can print
in multiple colors.
4. Wax-jet Printers - Melt-wax and then spray it on paper. These are high-end printers that produce outstanding colors.
5.
SCANNERS
Whether you have a digital camera or not, you want to have a scanner to provide a convenient way to get your existing conventional
images like photo prints, 35mm slides, negatives, even advance photo system films-in a computer. There are many incredible things that can be
done to photos once you get them into a computer.
1. You can enhance them
2. You can remove defects (and unwanted elements)
3. Manipulate reality
4. And text or other elements
Some uses of Digital Photography in Law Enforcement
1. Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
2. Crime Scene Reconstruction – is the use of scientific method, physical evidence, deductive and inductive reasoning and their inter-
relationship to gain explicit knowledge of series of events that surrounds the commission of crime.
3. Computerized Composite Facial Sketching
Example of this is the Facial Automated Composite and Editing System (FACES), its capabilities are the following:
1. Facial Composition
2. Cranial facial reconstruction of deceased persons with mutilated face
3. Facial image enhancement
4. Missing person photograph update
5. Image and demographic database and retrieval
Integrated Ballistics Identification system (IBIS)
With digital imaging, photomicrographs of striations and other minute markings found on bullets or shells can be stored on a
database which will facilitate the matching or identification of bullets or shells.
Legal Foundation of Digital Photography
1. Rules on Electronic Evidence
- Acting on Memorandum dated June 18, 2001 of the Committee on the Revision of Rules of Court to draft on the E-Commerce Law
(R.A No. 8792) the Supreme Court, EN BANC, approved the said resolution.
- Rule II is on Audio, Photographic Video and Ephemeral Evidence
Audio, photographic and video evidence of events, acts, or transactions shall be admissible provided it shall be shown, presented, or
displayed to the court and shall be identified, explained or authenticated by the person who made the recording or by some other person
competent to testify on the accuracy thereof
Some Guidelines for Ensuring Digital Photographs Admissibility
1. Formulate standard operating procedures (SOP) or Department Policy or General Order of the Use of Digital Imaging.
2. Most importantly, preserve the original digital image.
3. Digital images shall be preserved in their original file format.
4. If images are stored on a computer work station or server, and several individuals would have access to the image file, make the image
file, “Read Only” for all except evidence and photo-lab staff.
5. If an image is to be analysed or enhanced, the new image file created should be saved as new file name. The original must not be
replaced (overwritten) with new file.

COURT TESTIMONY
In the practice of Forensic Science the inevitable thing is court testimony.
Under or Laws there are Two Kinds of Witnesses:
1. Ordinary Witness – an ordinary witness is one who can perceive an in- so perceiving can make known to others what he perceives.
2. Expert Witness – it is a person with specialized skills sets whose opinion may help the court make sense of the factual evidence of a case.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS

 FILM – contains minute grains of silver halide suspended in animal gelatin and coated on celluloid material.
Basically it has two parts:
a. Emulsion b. Base
Layers of the Film C. Anti-halation backing
A. Thin coat of gelatine D. Bas
B. Emulsion
Black and White Films – Usually represented by a prefix or suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography. Examples
are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.The characteristics of a B & W films are film speed (sensitivity to light), spectral (wavelength or color)
sensitivity and granularity or graininess.

Emulsion Speed
a. ASA - American Standard Association – expressed in arithmetical value. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
b. DIN - Deutche Industri Normen – expressed in logarithmic value
c. ISO - International Standard Organization – expressed in the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values.
According to Spectral Sensitivity
- is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of the light course.
1. Blue sensitive film – sensitive to UV rays and blue light only.
2. Orthochromatic film – sensitive to UV rays, blue and green lights only.
3. Panchromatic film – sensitive to UV rays,-blue, green and red light or all colors.
4. Infra-red Film – sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green, red light and infrared rays.
Granularity or Graininess
- refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after development of an exposed film

COLOR FILMS – can be divided into two: Negative type and the Reversal Type of colored film. The former is usually having names ending in color
while the word chrome represents the latter. Is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base.The mixture of the three basic color of
the visible spectrum.
i. Negative or non-reversal film - The suffix “color” is given to negative or non-reversal films. This film yields either a negative or a positive
image depending in how it used. Examples are: Kodacolor, Fujicolor, Agfacolor, etc.
ii. Reversal Film - The suffix “chrome” is applied. This film when processed a positive image or transparency for projection viewing.
Examples are: Kodachrome, Ektachrome, Fujichrome, Agfachrome, etc.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
• That sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and become the photograph
• Modern photographic papers are basically composed of light sensitive coating (emulsion) on a paper base or support. The emulsion
suspended on a gelatine is generally made of silver halide salts. To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical solutions and water during
processing and washing, as well as the variety of degree of humidity and temperature, the base is made of wood pulp.

Characteristics of a photographic paper:

 Contrast Range or grade
 Number 0 and 1 – are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative
 Number 2 – are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negative
 Number 3-5 – used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives.
Characteristics of a photographic paper:
 Emulsion Speed (silver halides content)
1. Chloride paper – has slow speed and suited for contact printing
2. Bromide paper – has a fast speed and recommended for projection printing or enlarging
3. Chloro-bromide paper – multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and enlarging.
According to Physical Characteristics
1. Surface Texture
 Glossy paper – designed for fine details and brilliant image formation.
 Semi-matte paper or silk – obscure the fine details
 Rough papers – used for large prints or where breadth rather than detail is necessary.
2. Weight
 Light weight – designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of consideration.
 Single weight – papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used
in ordinary photographic purposes
 Double weight – generally used for large prints because they stand up under rough treatment.
3. Color
 White – better used in police photography
 Cream – preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is desired.
 Buff papers – preferred for tone prints.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING AND CHEMICAL PROCESSING

 Chemical Processing
- after the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during printing, the next step would generally
be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps are development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color
development, stop-fix and stabilizer.
1. Development – is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In black-and-white emulsion, the image is
composed of grains of black metallic silver. In a color emulsion, the developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow and magenta dye.
2. Stop-Bath – halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the contamination of the developer and fixer from each
other.
3. Fixation – a fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by thorough washing. In this processing stage, the
unexposed undevelop silver halides crystals are dissolved and removed from emulsion of the photographic materials.
FILM PROCESSING
 Film processing can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment. Panchromatic materials must be handled in total darkness.
Other materials like blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers are handled under a safelight.
Equipment for Film Processing
1. Tank or Tray 6. Timer
2. Developing Reel 7. Funnel
3. Opener for Film Cartridge 8. Photographic Sponge
4. Scissors 9. Film Clips for Drying
5. Thermometer 10. Glass or Plastic Bottles (Gallon size) for Storing Mixed Solutions.
FILM PROCESSING PROCEDURE
 1. Tank method of the film development
a. Mix the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer according to instructional manuals. Then bring it to temperature which is 20-21 C or 68-70 F.
b. In dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel, and the tank so they can be readily located in the dark.
c. In complete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off the cap opposite the end, where the long spool core protrudes.
Extends the film then remove it from the tips in the spool core. The reel it.
d. After the reeling of the film is done place it inside the daylight developing tank then cover it, white light can now be open. Remove the
lid cover of the tank is full. Invert the tank and agitate it for a few seconds. Timer should start now. Intermittent agitation should be
made during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes pour out or drain the developer.
e. Pour in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds drain out the stop-bath. Next is to pour in the fixing bath.
Agitation should also be done every so often and after 15-20 minutes drain the fixer from the tank.
f. You now wash the negative for several changes preferably in running water for another 15-20 minutes.
g. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse it in water then squeeze it to remove excess water. Wipe
the negative with the sponge slowly to remove the water adhering on the negative. This must be done with both sides of the negative.
Water that adheres on the surface of the negative cause watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
h. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.
DEVELOPER FORMULATION
A typical components of a black-and-white developer are:
1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservatives
4. Accelerator or activator
5. Restrainer
D-76 Film Developer formula DEKTOL – paper developer
1. Water 52C or 125 F – 750ml 1. Water 52C or 125 F – 500ml
2. Elon - 2 grams 2. Elon - 311 grams
3. Hydroquinone – 5 grams 3. Hydroquinone – 12 grams
4. Sodium sulfite – 100 grams 4. Sodium sulfite – 4.5 grams
5. Borax (granules) – 2 grams 5. Sodiul carbonate – 67.5 grams
6. Water to make – 1 liter 6. Water to make – 1 liter
STOP-BATH - Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid.
FIXING BATH FORMULA
The chemical components of a fixing bath are:
1. Water 2. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) – 240 grams
2. Dissolving agent 3. Sodium sulfite – 15 grams
3. Preservative 4. Acetic Acid(28%) – 480 ml
4. Neutralizers 5. Boric acid (crystals) – 7.5 grams
5. Hardener 6. Potassium amum (fine granular) – 15 grams
A typical fixer formula: 7. Water to make – 1 lite
1. Water 50C or 120 F – 600ml
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
There are two general types of photographic printing:
1. Contact printing- Contact printing is the procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being
reproduced. This is the simplest and the most economical method of photographic printing. In terms of print quality, it can surpass enlargement in
tonality because there is no scattering of image forming lights as this can be in projected beams of an enlarger.
It usually looks sharper because there is no lens in the printing system to add its aberrations in the print making process and also
because details that may be slightly out of focus are not enlarged So the unsharpness is not apparent.
Contact prints are generally made for proofs of 35 mm negatives or copies of the large format negatives like 5"x 7" of 8" x 10". It is
also used to make positive copies of the negatives. Contact prints can be made with either black-and-white or color materials.
Contact prints may be made with:
1. Glass and pad
2. Pressure printing frame
3. Contact printer
 Glass and pad - A sheet of clear glass about 2 inches bigger than the print size in all sides to give a border for handling and for its
application of pressure. The pad should be of the same size as the glass.
 Pressure printing frame - This is like a picture with a removable hinge back leaf spring on the back. Lock it into place and it exert pressure
against the glass in the frame.
 Contact printer - For a large volume work and a more controlled printing, a contact printer is most effective and convenient. This is
essentially a glass-top box with an exposing light and a safelight (for proper arrangement of the negatives and the paper) inside and a
hinge pressure cover on the glass. Switches of the format control the lights.
Printing Procedure
 Clean the glass from the dust. dirt and stains. Place the negative with the base side against the glass and the emulsion facing the emulsion
of the photographic paper. If a film rather than a photographic paper is being exposed, it must be backed with a black paper so reflected
lights will not add unwanted exposure, arrange the negatives to be printed on the photographic paper so every part of it is
accommodated with extra space on all sides.
 To prevent movement of the negatives, the used of transparent tape is advice to hold the negative in place. Then press tightly together
the negative and the paper with the glass and the pad. Expose it to light. Correct exposure is determined with test strips just like in
enlargement. Process the exposed photographic paper with the same solutions and processing time as in enlargement procedure. Then
wash, and then dry.
Projection Printing or Enlarging
 This is a type of printing where the image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a print material for exposure to produce a
picture image. The main equipment used is the Enlarger.
The basic or essential parts of an Enlarger are: 7. Elevating knob
1. Baseboard and its vertical column 8. Red filter
2. Lamp house 9. Electrical cord and switch
3. Condenser or diffuser Essentials accessory of an enlarger:
4. Bellows 1. Negative carrier
5. Lens 2. Easel or paper holder
6. Focusing knob 3. Timer for consistent and repeatable exposure
 There are different sizes of enlargers. The size of the enlarger is dependent on the size of the negative it is capable of accepting.
There is the &mm for microfilms, the 35 mm which is now the most common and popular, the 120mm, or the bigger negative sizes like 4'x 5".
The common light sources for enlargers:
1. Tungsten lamp
2. Halogen lamp
3. Mercury vapor lamp
4. Fluorescent lamp sometimes referred to as "cold light" because of its somewhat diffused illumination. This generally used portrait work.
There are two general types of Enlargers:
1. Diffusion type
2. Condenser type
EQUIPMENT FOR PAPER DEVELOPING
1. Three plastic trays- one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size).
2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the prints.
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves. (There are some persons who are subject to skin allergy reactions with the solutions. For precaution, wear
it.)
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
6. A bigger tray or tank for washing prints
Printing procedure in color printing of a negative
1. Prepare the chemical solutions by carefully following the instructions given with the photographic paper and the chemicals.
2. Place the negative in the enlarger with the emulsion side toward the lens of the enlarger. Use 50 M+50 Y filter (40 M+10 M+40 Y+40Y+ 10
Y) or others ae specified in the paper instructions to make a test strip of series of fo ir exposures at the same magnification as will be used
in the first print. Exposure time is 10 seconds each of f4, f5.6 , f8 and 11.
3. Process the print then dry it.
4. Then judge the best test strip for color balance. Look at sensitive areas or at the middle as flesh tones or persons and decide on what
color or colors is in excess and how much is excess-light, considerable, great.
5. Based on the above decision, select a filter pack that will control the color of the exposing light. Add to filter pack, filter of the same color
or colors as those in excess in the test. Add 10 filter for a slight change, 20 for considerable change and for great change 30 filter (20filter
+10 filter). Some exposure color casts may require as much as 50 filter addition to the pack.
6. Make another test exposure based on the estimated filter pack and the corresponding additional exposure time.
7. Depending on the experience of the one printing, a third, fourth, or even a fifth strip may be necessary until the desired color balance and
density is obtained.
COLOR COMPARED TO BLACK AND WHITE
 Since we live in a world of color it is only natural that is general, we find color photographs more realistic than black and white
photographs. Comparatively speaking, black and white photographs are more of an abstraction from reality, or in other words, they are
commonly accepted on their merits as pictures. In a portrait, it is the likeness that is considered as the paramount importance, but other
types of black and white prints tends to be judged without reference to or regard tor the appearance of the original scene. As a result,
tone rendition in black and white prints over a wide range and still remain satisfactory.
 In Forensic Photography, generally, fingerprints and handwritings, or other printed materials which are subject for examination, analysis,
comparison and evaluation are black and white (for contrast) in their original appearance so the use of color photographs is not adviced.
 In the case of color photographs, however, an average observer tends to make a more direct comparison between subject and
reproduction. His thoughts and comments will be based on a considerably greater extent on his recollection of the original scene or his
conception of how the original scene should have appeared.
 If the color photograph is to be satisfactory, skin and other objects which have definite appearance in the mind of the observer must be
represented with reasonable accuracy, both in terms of tone rendition and color rendering. Color adds a more "dimension" (figurative
sense) to the mere reproduction of the scene in tone of gray. Color photograph is subject to a more orientation and greater range effect
than black and white photographs.
PROBLEMS IN COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY
a. Color quality of illumination - Essentially, the problem in color work is the fact that a color film does not "see" color as the human eye.
The color of light is bluer with higher temperature and yellower with lower temperature. Color temperature is expressed in degree Kelvin
(K) obtained by adding 273 to the temperature in degree centigrade.
b. Subject contrast – Subject contrast of a film depends largely on one factor-lighting contrast-which is the ratio between the highest and
lowest amount of illumination falling on the principal subject.
C. Exposure accuracy – Color films, particularly the reversal type have much less exposure latitude than black and white films. Exposure
setting must therefore be determined with greater degree of accuracy. Use of exposure meter is highly adviced in the setting of correct
exposure.
d. Color Perception – Inexperienced observer sometimes cannot recognize subtle tints mixtures and reflections brought about by the
effects of lighting condition and their surroundings.
e. Color Harmony – Color harmony is the systematic arrangement of colors to give a pleasing effect. This subject is complex because of
personal taste. This is a problem in commercial photography and illustrative work but seldom in Forensic work.

Thank you and God Bless!