Volume 22 (2) 2023 Page 88 - 100

Mekanika: Majalah Ilmiah Mekanika

Evaluating the Influence of Environmental Factors and Parameters on

Advancements in Welding and Joining Processes: A Review
Sudarno Sudarno1, Quang Thang Do2, Haris Nubli3, Dandun Mahesa Prabowoputra4, Nur Candra Dana
Agusti1, Ridwan Ridwan1,*, Anggi Vandika5,6
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Merdeka Madiun, Madiun 63133, Indonesia
2 Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Nha Trang University, Nha Trang, 650000, Vietnam
3 Department of Marine Design Convergence Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, South Korea
4 Department of Industrial Engineering, Universitas Jenderal Soedirman, Purwokerto 53122, Indonesia
5 Akademi Teknik Wacana Manunggal, Salatiga 50736, Indonesia
6 Department of Research and Development, P.T. DTECH Inovasi Indonesia, Salatiga 50742, Indonesia
*Corresponding Author’s email address: ridwan@unmer-madiun.ac.id

Keywords: Abstract:
Welding This review article presents a comprehensive overview of welding, including its
Environmental influence environmental influence, common welding failures, welding parameters, and
Welding failure predictions of development regarding welding and corrosion. The quality and integrity
Welding system development
of welds can be significantly affected by environmental factors such as temperature,
Welding characteristic
humidity, and atmospheric contaminants. Moreover, welding failures can occur due to
various reasons, such as improper welding techniques, inadequate preparation,
corrosion, or material defects, leading to structural weaknesses and compromised joint
integrity. Furthermore, notable progress has been achieved in welding system
technology, encompassing automation, robotics, and real-time monitoring. These
advancements underscore the vital role of welding parameters in transforming control,
precision, and productivity within the welding process. The integration of innovative
welding systems has led to improved welding efficiency, reduced human error, and
increased overall process reliability. This review consolidates knowledge from diverse
sources, making it a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and industries
involved in welding.
1 Introduction
Welding is a combination of two or more components using material or without additives with high
heating. There is a failure in the welding process that may occur and change the metallurgical properties
due to heating. GMAW and SMAW are welding processes that are often used in construction work or
joining steel materials. To increase durability, strength, and safety, especially on steel construction
materials, an analysis of welded joints is carried out to determine any changes in properties that have
occurred during the welding process. Ibrahim et al. [1] have researched using the GMAW technique with
arc voltage and welding speed parameters obtained changes in structural properties due to heating on
microstructural analysis. Gemme et al. [2] also researched Friction Stir Welding. They found that there
were failures caused by sub-surface defects that were generated afterward by abnormal agitation and
softening of the heat-affected zone in excessive heat.

https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/mekanika.v22i2.75738

Revised 15 August 2023; received in revised version 25 August 2023; Accepted 10 September 2023
Available Online 30 September 2023

2579-3144
© 2023 Mekanika: Majalah Ilmiah Mekanika. All right reserved 88
Sudarno, et al.

Welding is a process of joining two or more metal parts by applying heat, pressure, or both. For
instance, Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid-state welding technique that involves a non-consumable
rotating tool that creates friction between the workpieces, generating heat [3]. The heat softens the metal,
allowing the tool to traverse along the joint and create a weld. Welding quality is affected by various
environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, wind, dust, and corrosion [4-6]. These factors can
cause defects in the welds, such as cracks, porosity, lack of fusion, and distortion. Welding failure can have
serious consequences for the safety and performance of the welded structures and components. Therefore,
it is important to monitor and control the welding environment and to use appropriate welding techniques
and materials. The development of welding systems aims to improve welding quality and efficiency by
using advanced technologies, such as automation, robotics, sensors, artificial intelligence, and additive
manufacturing [7-9]. These technologies can help reduce human errors, optimize welding parameters,
enhance weld inspection and evaluation, and create complex and customized shapes. It is important to
choose appropriate welding parameters to get the best quality welding results, such as the arc current and
arc voltage, environmental influence, and the causes of the failure of the weld joint must be considered.
Therefore, environmental influences and the process of occurrence of faults in welding joints are crucial
issues in this study.
One specific real-world application of welding that correlates with the subject of discussion,
especially in ship structures, is the construction and repair of large-scale marine vessels, such as cargo ships,
tankers, and cruise liners. The ship structure welding is a critical process that must consider the
environmental influences discussed in this review, such as temperature, humidity, and atmospheric
contaminants. Ships operate in a variety of marine environments subjected to varying weather conditions
and exposure to corrosive saltwater [10]. These environmental factors can have a significant impact on the
quality and integrity of ship welds. Understanding the environmental influence on welding is essential in
shipbuilding in order to optimize process parameters and ensure the reliable quality of welds [11]. Proper
welding techniques and preparation are critical to ensuring the strength and durability of the ship's structure,
as welding failures can result in compromised joint integrity and structural weaknesses, jeopardizing the
safety of the vessel and its crew. Welding is a critical aspect that must be addressed in this comprehensive
review article. The welding, for instance, in ships and maritime structures requires special attention due to
the unique challenges posed by marine environments. The quality and integrity of ship welds are of utmost
importance as they directly impact the safety and longevity of vessels at sea. Ship welding is heavily
influenced by environmental factors, such as saltwater exposure, corrosive elements, and constant
movement [12]. Understanding the environmental impact of ship welding is essential for optimizing process
parameters and ensuring reliability, such as welds in maritime structures. The welding technology review
is urgently needed because it highlights how these advancements can significantly reduce human errors,
optimize welding parameters, improve weld inspection and evaluation, and enable the creation of intricate
and tailored shapes, emphasizing the critical importance of considering environmental influences and
understanding the causes of welding joint failures to achieve the best quality welding results.
This study aims to conduct a thorough investigation of existing literature, with a focus on the
interconnections between welding, environmental influences, welding failures, and welding parameters.
Furthermore, ongoing studies investigate welding failures, structural changes, and material testing. As
highlighted in this study, improving the strength and safety of construction steel is prioritized for
fundamental support in the sector.
2 Environmental Influence
Environmental conditions in the welding process are factors that cause failure of the welded joint.
If not controlled, it will cause nitrogen gas content, which can cause porosity defects, so that it is susceptible
to cracking, which results in poor strength and toughness tests on steel welding [13]. Several studies have
been conducted to determine the effect of various environmental conditions during the welding process.
Jang et al. [14] improved the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) technique for A15083-O aluminum alloys.

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Also, strength and toughness behaviors were examined for four different compositions of argon and helium
gas, and four conditions temperature, +25°C, -30°C, -85°C, and -196°C.
Tensile testing at the temperature test of +25°C to -85°C did not significantly but increased rapidly
at -196°C. The lower the test temperature possible, the higher the elasticity of the alloy [14]. However, the
strain tends to increase as the test temperature decreases, indicating that the aluminum material can be used
at extremely low temperatures. The various components of the shielding gas did not have a significant
effect on the mechanical properties, but in general, the best analytical performance was shown for the
Ar33%+67%He mixture. Table 1 shows prior studies related to the environmental influence of welding
systems.
Table 1. Prior studies related to the environmental influence of welding system.
Authors Application Country Remark
This study aimed to assess the susceptibility to hydrogen-
Shielded metal
Atkins et al. induced cracking in the fusion zone of single-pass weld
arc welding USA
[13] deposits fabricated through four distinct welding
(SMAW)
processes with equivalent levels of diffusible hydrogen.
The strength and elongation of the material were not
Gas metal arc affected much by the test temperature in the range of
Jang et al.
welding South Korea +25°C to −85°C, but they increased significantly at
[14]
(GMAW) −196°C. The shielding gas composition also had a minor
impact on these properties.
Mg2Si precipitates form in the microstructure under all
welding conditions. The number of precipitates increases,
Abbasi et al. Friction stir while the size and spacing between them decrease when
Iran
[15] welding (FSW) applying FSVW and UWFSW. The precipitate size is
approximately 57 nm, 36 nm, and 25 nm for UWFS, FSV,
and FS welded specimens, respectively.
Friction stir welding offers an efficient and cost-effective
alternative method for joining thin plates and hollow
Shimpi et al. Friction stir pipes. Consequently, this same joining process can be
India
[16] welding (FSW) utilized for joining thin shells and tanks in various
applications such as automobiles, aerospace, and
shipbuilding.
A rotational velocity of 1250 rev min-1 and a linear speed
Rouhi et al. Friction stir
Iran of 40 min min-1 are the parameters that result in faultless
[17] welding (FSW)
welds for the AZ91C magnesium alloy.
AA6061-T6 was analyzed for microstructure and mechanical characteristics and then compared with
conventional Friction Stir Welding. The result showed that FSVW and UWFSW can effectively reduce the
size and interparticle distance of precipitates, and strength and ductility are higher than the conventional
Friction Stir Welding. There is also a higher tensile based on the analysis that has been carried out.
Furthermore, the tensile strength of the sample welded underwater is about double that of the original
material (Figure 1), according to Rouhi et al. [17]. It demonstrates the effectiveness of underwater welding
as a technique for enhancing the mechanical properties of metals.

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Sudarno, et al.

450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
Values

Values
250 10
200 8
150 6
100 4
50 2
0 0
Base meta 800 rev/min air 1600 rev/min 1250 rev/min 1250 rev/min 800 rev/min air 1600 rev/min air 1250 rev/min air 1250 rev/min
air air submerged submerged
Friction stir welding Friction stir welding

Hardness on nugget zone/HV UTS/MPa Grain size/µm TE/%

Figure 1. Samples welded in different environments based [17].

30 300

25 250

20 200
Values

Values
15 150

10 100

5 50

0 0
FSW FSVW UWFSW FSW FSVW UWFSW
Welding Welding

Elongation (%) Impact toughness (J) Yield stress (MPa) UTS (MPa) Welding efficiency (%)

Figure 2. The impact of welding conditions on the mechanical properties of joint zones based [15].
Aluminum testing was recently carried out using the friction stir welding method, which compared
variations of Friction Stir Vibration Welding (FSVW) and Under Water Friction Stir Welding (UWFSW)
[15]. Figure 2 illustrates the influence of various joining conditions on the mechanical performance of the
stir zone (SZ). Based on the data presented in Figure 2, the UWFSW (underwater friction stir welding)
samples exhibit superior mechanical characteristics compared to FSW (friction stir welding) and FSVW
(friction stir-vibration welding) samples. Specifically, the UWFSW samples demonstrate a higher ultimate
tensile strength (UTS), yield strength (YS), elongation, and impact toughness. The FSW samples have a
yield stress of 131 MPa, UTS of 214 MPa, elongation of 6.41%, and impact toughness of 9 J. The FSVW
samples exhibit a yield stress of 144 MPa, UTS of 234 MPa, elongation of 9.55%, and impact toughness of
19 J. In contrast, the UWFSW samples display a yield stress of 158 MPa, UTS of 269 MPa, elongation of
15.21%, and impact toughness of 28 J [15]. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a welding technique with
environmentally green technology that requires less energy and does not require flux or gas, so it is more
environmentally friendly than conventional welding, as shown by Shimpi et al. [16] and Rouhi et al. [17].
3 Welding Failure
Problems in welded joints can spread new problems if there is no inspection. The execution welding
process, parameters welding process, and design of the weld geometry are basic problems in welded joints.
Determining the causes of the failure of the weld joint can be analyzed by light microscopy, material testing,
stress analysis, and visual inspection, as shown by Somers and Pense [18]. Selection of steel quality also
affects failure in welding, especially in steels joined together, which are very sensitive to fatigue, weld
quality, and weld corrosion. Table 2 shows prior studies related to the welding failure.
Steel structure construction is widely used in the manufacture of bridges, towers, building
construction, and others. There is a connection that is connected at each end to each other using bolts, rivets,
or welding. These crisis structures often get loads that exceed their normal load and are required for long
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years with environmental conditions that produce fluctuating pressure, see Thomas [19]. As presented in
the study, insufficient penetration in a weld, as depicted in Figure 3, can result in premature failure at
stresses significantly lower than the intended design stress for the application. In such cases, fatigue cracks
tend to initiate at the weld toe and propagate along the bead of the weld until fracture occurs. Hence,
ensuring the quality of the weld is of utmost importance to produce durable and high-quality welds.
Stabryła and Dutka [20] researched welding failure of construction steel, which affects durability,
strength, and safety. In Figure 4, there is a welding failure in the GMAW technique. Cracks are visible on
the outside base material precisely in the heat-affected zone. It can occur due to changes in volume and
consist of harder martensite, which is affected by heat. The study further reveals that attempts were made
to attribute the cracking to the presence of atomic nitrogen in the structure, which could lead to aging, along
with the high carbon equivalent value (CEV).
However, the steel used in accordance with the certificate demonstrates low nitrogen content and
adequate silicon and aluminum content, ensuring proper settling and resistance to aging. Additionally, the
CEV value of 0.36% is significantly below the standard limit of 0.50%, indicating that the steel's chemical
composition should not pose any welding issues. One possible cause of material failure is the application
of an external load that exceeds the strength of the material [22-24]. This failure can compromise the
integrity and performance of engineering components or structures [25-28].
Table 2. Prior studies related to the welding failure.
Authors Application Country Remark
Typically, welding failures can be attributed to welding issues
classified into five categories. These are failures resulting from
improper weld geometrical design, failures resulting from
Gas metal arc
Somers and inappropriately specified weld process parameters, failures
welding USA
Pense [18] resulting from incompatibilities of the materials being welded and
(GMAW)
the processes employed, failures resulting from improperly
executed welds, and failures resulting from unanticipated service
conditions.
Various variables, including the magnitude of notch root stress
and the properties of the notch itself, influence weld fatigue life.
Gas metal arc Factors such as applied stresses, warping degree, residual stresses,
Thomas [19] welding UK weld geometry, and size, as well as the presence of any weld
(GMAW) defects, impact the notch stress. Consequently, the local stress at
a notch plays a crucial role in determining the fatigue behavior of
a weld.
The utilization of an incorrect welding technique resulted in the
presence of several welding defects, primarily incomplete fusions.
Stabryła and Metal active gas
Poland Improper preparation for welding, such as excessive distance,
Dutka [20] (MAG) welding
potentially excessive thresholds, and lack of scarfing, also
contributed to these issues.
The fatigue strength of FSW joints is determined by a competition
Gemme et Friction stir between two failure mechanisms associated with the welding
Canada
al. [2] welding (FSW) pitch. Initially, fatigue cracks can originate from the root of
circular grooves left on the weld surface by the tool.
A crack originated and propagated along the weld, with the base
metals (BMs) exhibiting higher toughness compared to the
dissimilar metal welded joints (DMWJs). The DMWJs
Saju and Rotary friction
India demonstrated inferior crack growth resistance compared to the
Velu [21] welding (RFW)
BMs. However, post-weld heat treatment improved both the
fracture toughness (FT) and crack growth resistance in the DMWJ
compared to the untreated DMWJ.

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Welding failures are common in marine engineering, particularly in ship structures. Researchers have
delved into the evaluation of high cycle fatigue behavior in different types of welded joints used in ship
hull structures. Hariprasath et al. [29] conducted a study that focused on flux-cored arc welded naval grade
DMR249 A-grade steel joints, providing valuable insights into the stages of fatigue failure, ranging from
crack initiation to propagation and final fracture. Understanding these stages is crucial for flux-cored arc
welding of micro-alloyed naval-grade steel. Another study by Nathan et al. [30] examined the impact of
tool rotational speed on the microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded DMR249A
high-strength low alloy steel butt joints for lightweight shipbuilding structures. Their findings showed that
a specific tool rotational speed (TRS) of 600 rpm resulted in the formation of lathe upper bainitic
microstructure, leading to higher tensile strength and acceptable impact toughness properties in the joint.
Moreover, Kožuh et al. [31] utilized SEM and EDX analysis to identify inclusions sporadically present in
the microstructure of the weld metal and the heat-affected zone. These inclusions, consisting of oxygen,
calcium, aluminum, silicon, magnesium, and sulfur, were found to be a potential cause for pitting initiation
in the weld metal/heat-affected zone. Additionally, the corrosion of these regions might be attributed to the
galvanic effect between inter-dendrite chromium-rich delta ferrite (21.09% Cr, 8.37% Ni) and nickel-rich
austenite (15.72% Cr, 10.84% Ni), as presented in their study.

Figure 3. The construction joint failed as a result of insufficient weld penetration, leading to the initiation of a
fatigue crack and subsequent fracture [19].

Figure 4. Cracking in the HAZ circumferential weld [20].

As for treatments to improve the fatigue strength of welded joints in ship structures, burr grinding,
TIG dressing, and hammer peening have been identified as cost-effective options. However, it is essential
to view these treatments primarily as remedial actions or repairs rather than as standard procedures for the
design of new structures. Modifying the joint design during the initial stage is preferable to achieve the
desired fatigue performance for the overall structure, as recommended in the study by Kirkhope et al. [32].
4 Welding Parameters
Modern information technologies such as the Internet of Things, big data, artificial intelligence, cloud
computing, and intelligent manufacturing are transforming welding systems. These technologies enable
intelligent welding systems (IWS), which use computers to sense, learn, decide, monitor, and control
various aspects of welding. IWS is attracting attention from both academic and industrial communities.

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Industrial production lines rely heavily on welding processes and systems. Over the years, many
welding operations that use handheld tools have been automated with welding systems that use industrial
robots [33]. However, these welding robots are mostly preprogrammed machines with little or no
intelligence. Modern welding processes are complex, with many parameters and a limited understanding
of the process mechanism. Previous reviews have introduced and described several welding parameters
effects, as summarized in Table 3.
Ngo et al. [35] introduce a new method for improving the welding outcomes of a gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) system using a decentralized control approach. The paper considers the GMAW system
as two separate subsystems: the power source of GMAW (PS-GMAW) and the wire feed unit (WFU). The
paper proposes and applies sliding mode control and proportional control methods to control the welding
current and voltage output for tracking the set value. As shown in Figure 5, the output welding current and
voltage were stable after 3.5 seconds and closely matched the setting values throughout the welding process.
The simulation results indicate that the output values were 110 A and 22 V, respectively. Friction stir
welding of steel offers many benefits for various industrial sectors over traditional fusion welding methods.
Table 3. Prior studies related to the welding parameters effects.
Authors Application Country Remark
The results of the experiments indicate that the proposed
Shielded metal adaptive sliding mode controller for the automatic
Chu and Tung
arc welding Taiwan SMAW control system can not only substitute manual
[34]
(SMAW) operations but also perform shielded metal arc welding
effectively.
The developed digital automatic GMAW system ensures
Gas metal arc that the welding values match the desired values, as
Ngo et al.
welding South Korea demonstrated by the simulation and experiment results.
[35]
(GMAW) Moreover, the quality of the welding line is guaranteed
by the developed GMAW system.
The Charpy impact testing results and micro-hardness
measurements show that the strength and hardness of the
Toumpis et Friction stir
UK weld are not compromised by increasing the welding
al. [36] welding (FSW)
traverse speeds of FSW of steel, which enhances the
competitiveness of this solid-state joining method.
The spindle of the machine may have some runout due
Raimondi et Inertia friction
UK to the fabrication and assembly tolerances and the
al. [37] welding (IFW)
supporting elements' compliance.
Designed AWS E70XX oxy rutile Ni-Mo low alloy
Shielded metal electrodes can make welds with the properties needed
Santos et al.
arc welding Brazil for Class A welds according to the AWS D3.6 M code.
[38]
(SMAW) These properties include ductility, mechanical strength,
and toughness.

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(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Experimental results of developed GMAW, and (b) tracking current and voltage [35].
Toumpis et al. [36] established a process envelope for friction stir welding of DH36 Steel. It shows
how increasing the welding traverse speeds can enhance the impact toughness of the weld and make the
FSW of steel more competitive. Raimondi et al. [37] propose a new monitoring system that can measure
the effects of the machine and the tooling on the Inertia Friction Welding (IFW) process in real-time.
Furthermore, the output of a laser and an LVDT was analyzed using a frequency spectrum, as shown in
Figure 6.

Figure 6. (a) Comparison between the scalograms of laser, and (b) LVDT with the angular speed of the spindle
(dashed line) [37].
The development of welding systems has been a significant advancement in the field of
manufacturing and engineering. Welding is the process of joining two or more metal parts by melting and
fusing them. The welding system consists of various components, such as a power source, electrode, torch,
filler material, shielding gas, and control unit. The manipulation of welding parameters can greatly
influence quality and integrity of welded joints. Varied welding parameters can lead to diverse outcomes
in terms of weld strength and structural integrity. Furthermore, the development of welding systems has
been influenced by several factors, such as the demand for high-quality and durable products, the need to
reduce production costs and time, the availability of new materials and technologies, and the environmental
and safety regulations [37]. Some of the recent developments in welding systems include laser welding,
friction stir welding, ultrasonic welding, and hybrid welding. These methods offer advantages such as high
speed, precision, efficiency, and flexibility over conventional welding methods. Marine engineering has
witnessed significant development in recent years [39-40]. However, they also pose some challenges, such
as high initial cost, complex operation, and limited applicability. Therefore, further research and innovation
are needed to overcome these limitations and improve the performance and reliability of welding systems.
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5 Predictions of Development Regarding the Welding and Corrosion

The weld zone may be more susceptible to corrosion because of its different chemical makeup,
residual stress, and metallurgical structure. To prevent corrosion of weld joints, the materials, filler metal,
welding techniques, and finishing should be chosen carefully. However, even with these precautions, weld
corrosion may still happen for various reasons.
Chen et al. [41] recently conducted research focusing on the effects of Titanium (Ti) on the
Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Corrosion Behavior of High-Strength Steel Weld Metals
utilized in Offshore Structures. Their findings revealed that the weld metal's corrosion resistance increases
with an increase in Ti content, ranging from 0.001 to 0.018 wt.%. However, when the Ti content was
increased to 0.022 wt.%, the corrosion resistance of the weld metal deteriorated. In 2023, Yelamasetti et al.
[42] investigated the metallurgical, mechanical, and corrosion behavior of pulsed and constant current
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) dissimilar welds between AISI 430 and Inconel 718. The corrosion rate of the
PC-TIG weldment was observed to be 1.35 mm/year, which is lower than that of the CC-TIG weldment
(1.41 mm/year). The PC-TIG weldment exhibited improved corrosion resistance compared to the CC-TIG
weldment and the base metal Inconel 718, as shown in Figure 7. Similarly, Ilman et al. [43] investigated
the Metallurgical, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of vibration-assisted gas metal arc AA6061-
T6 welded joints. Their findings demonstrated that the application of mechanical vibration significantly
increased the tensile strength of the welded joints by up to 83.3% higher when compared to the welds
without vibration, with a frequency of 300 Hz. The strengthening mechanisms in the vibrated weld joints
were primarily attributed to grain refinement in the weld metal region, involving columnar dendritic and
equiaxed dendritic microstructures, which contributed to inhibiting fatigue crack growth in the weld metal.
Table 4. Prior studies related to the predictions of development regarding the welding and corrosion.
Authors Application Country Remark
The addition of Ti had a significant impact on the microstructure,
Shielded metal the oxide formation, the mechanical properties, and the corrosion
Chen et al.
arc welding China resistance of the weld metal. The weld metal grains became finer as
[41]
(SMAW) the Ti content increased. It resulted in higher tensile strength and
corrosion resistance but lower impact properties.
PC-TIG welding creates weldments with high mechanical
Tungsten inert
Yelamasetti performance, low corrosion susceptibility, and fine-grained
gas (TIG) India
et al. [42] structures at the root zones. These results have industrial relevance
welding
for assembling turbine discs and shafts.
The interdendritic regions of the weld joints that were assisted by
Gas metal arc vibration had less Mg2Si and other intermetallic compounds, which
Ilman et al.
welding Indonesia lowered the chances of local galvanic cells and enhanced the
[43]
(GMAW) corrosion resistance. The HAZ and base metal might show similar
corrosion behavior.
Shielded metal The results show that the corrosion rate is higher for higher welding
Ambade et al.
arc welding India current. The SMAW weld joint has a higher corrosion rate than the
[44]
(SMAW) GMAW and GTAW weld joints.
AE energy, fatigue behavior, and evaluation technique of AZ31
welded joints are significantly affected by the corrosive
environments. More AE events occur in corrosive environment due
Friction stir to the initiation, growth, and branching of cracks, resulting in
He et al. [45] China
welding (FSW higher AE energy accumulation than in air (non-corrosive
environment). The corrosion fatigue limit of AZ31 welded joints in
3.5 wt.% NaCl solution is about 50% lower than in air, indicating a
high reduction rate.

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Ambade et al. [44] investigated the effect of welding processes and heat input on the corrosion
behavior of Ferritic stainless steel 409M. Ferritic stainless steel 409M was welded using shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) at welding
currents of 90A, 100A, and 110A in their study. Their findings revealed that the corrosion rate increased
with higher welding currents. Moreover, the corrosion rate was observed to be higher in SMAW weld joints
compared to GMAW and GTAW weld joints. In a separate study by He, et al. [45], the corrosion fatigue
acoustic emission (AE) characteristics and evaluation of friction stir welding joints of AZ31 magnesium
alloy were investigated in a 3.5 wt. % NaCl solution. The corrosive environment significantly influenced
the AE energy, fatigue property, and evaluation method of AZ31 welded joints. In the corrosive
environment, the accumulated AE energy was higher than that in a non-corrosive environment (air), owing
to increased AE sources from crack initiation, propagation, and secondary crack generation. The corrosion
fatigue limit of AZ31 welded joints in the 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution was reduced by approximately 50%
compared to that in air. The corrosion fatigue estimation model based on two lines was found to be
appropriate because the corrosive environment accelerated or even eliminated the corrosion fatigue
deformation process in each stage, as shown in Figure 8.
3 215

2,5 210
Corrosion Rate [mm/year]

Microhardness [HV0.5]
2 205

1,5 200
PC-TIC

1 195 CC-TIG

0,5 190

0 185
Inconel 718 AISI 430 PC-TIC CC-TIG Inconel 718 HAZ Weld zone AISI 430 HAZ
Base/weldments Welding

(a) (b)
Figure 7. The outcomes of corrosion tests conducted on the weldments of base/Inconel 718 and AISI 430 based:
(a) corrosion rate, and (b) microhardness [42].
1000 35000
Steady accumulated energy [mv*ms]

Steady accumulated energy [mv*ms]

900
30000
800
700 25000

600
20000
500
15000
400 Air NaCl
300 10000
200
5000
100
0 0
140 120 100 80 60 140 120 100 80 60
Fatique loading stress [MPa] Fatique loading stress [MPa]

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Acoustic emission's energy gradually accumulates under varying fatigue loading stress: (a) air, and (b)
NaCl solution [45].
Corrosion occurring in the weld metal regions can have serious consequences, frequently resulting in
significant structural failures. Mochizuki's study [46] demonstrated the effectiveness of an in-process
control method in preventing fatigue and stress-corrosion cracking, which was supported by numerical
analysis and actual experiments. This study looked into post-weld control methods, specifically water jet
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peening and TIG cladding. Water jet peening was effective in generating compressive residual stress on the
surface, which improved resistance to fatigue and stress-corrosion cracking. Furthermore, it was found that
cladding the weld with a corrosion-resistant material was effective in mitigating stress-corrosion cracking.
The residual stress at the interface of the base metal was found to be within acceptable limits for stress-
corrosion cracking.
6 Conclusions
Environmental influence, welding failure, welding parameters, and predictions regarding welding and
corrosion are vital aspects of welding engineering. Environmental factors like temperature, humidity,
corrosion, and stress impact weld quality and performance. For instance, high temperatures can cause
thermal expansion and contraction, leading to residual stress and distortion. Welding failure arises from
defects or errors during the welding process, causing cracks, fractures, or distortions. Advancements in
welding systems aim to improve efficiency, safety, and reliability through technologies like laser welding,
friction stir welding, robotics, sensors, and new materials. These interconnected aspects necessitate
continuous research and innovation to optimize welding engineering for diverse applications. Future
research should focus on optimizing welding systems for seawater conditions to enhance performance and
reliability in order to advance marine engineering and address challenges like high costs and complex
operations.
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