Surveying

• Subject: Surveying II
• Semester: 6th
• Credit No #: 3
• Methodology: Lecture and Practice
• Sources: Surveying Principles and Applications (9th edition), Barry Kavanagh & Tom Mastin
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• Lecturer Abdul Saboor Haidari
 Mapping (Topographical) Surveys

Prepared by Abdul Saboor Haidari

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Mapping (Topographical) Surveys

Introduction 1/4
Mapping surveys are made to determine the locations of natural and cultural
(manmade)features on the Earth’s surface and to define the pattern (relief) of
that surface.
 Once located, these features can be represented on maps.
 Natural features normally shown on maps include vegetation, rivers, lakes,
oceans, etc.
 Cultural (artificial) features are the products of people and include roads,
railroads, buildings, bridges, canals, etc.
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Introduction 2/4
 Lines and symbols are used to depict features shown on maps. Names and legends are
added to identify the different objects shown.
 Two different types of maps, planimetric and topographic, are prepared as a result
of mapping surveys.
 The former depicts natural and cultural features in the plan (X-Y) views only. Objects
shown are called planimetric features.
 Topographic maps also include planimetric features, but in addition they show the
configuration of the Earth’s surface.

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LEGENND

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Introduction 3/4
Applications
Both types of maps have many applications.
They are used by engineers and planners to determine the most desirable and
economical locations of highways, railroads, canals, pipelines, transmission
lines, reservoirs, and other facilities;
 by geologists to investigate mineral, oil, water, and other resources;
 by foresters to locate access- or haul-roads, fire-control routes, and
observation towers;
 by architects in housing and landscape design;
 by agriculturists in soil conservation work; 7

 and by archeologists, geographers, and scientists in numerous fields.

Introduction 4/4
Relief is shown on maps by using various rules and procedures. For topographic
maps, contours are most commonly used and are preferred by surveyors and
engineers.
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and three-dimensional perspective models are
newer methods for depicting relief, made possible by computers.

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DEM Illustration

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Basic methods for performing mapping surveys
Mapping surveys are conducted by one of two basic methods:
 Aerial (photogrammetric)
 Ground (field) techniques, but often a combination of both is employed.
 advanced equipment and procedures available today have made
photogrammetry very accurate and economical. Hence, almost all mapping
projects covering large areas now employ this method.
 Ground surveys are still commonly used in preparing large-scale maps of
smaller areas. Even when photogrammetry or airborne laser mapping is
utilized, ground surveys are necessary to establish control and to field-
check mapped features for accuracy. 10
Map Scale
Map scale is the ratio of the length of an object or feature on a map to the true
length of the object or feature.
 Map scales are given in three ways:
1) by ratio or representative fraction, such as 1:2000 or 1/2000;
2) by an equivalence, for example, 1 in.=200 ft;
3) by graphically using either a bar scale or labeled grid lines spaced throughout
the map at uniform distances apart.

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Example:
1 in. = 100 ft is converted to a ratio by multiplying 100 ft by 12, which converts it
to inches and gives a ratio of 1:1200.

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 Choice of scale depends on the purpose, size, and required precision of the
finished map.
Map scales may be classified as large, medium, and small. Their respective scale
ranges are as follows:

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Applications of different scales
(a)-Large-scale maps are applied where relatively high accuracy is needed over limited areas; for
example, in subdivision design and the design of projects like roads, dams, airports, and water
and sewage systems.
(b)-Medium scales are often used for applications such as general preliminary planning where
larger areas are covered but only moderate accuracy is needed. Applications include mapping the
general layout of potential construction sites, proposed transportation systems, and existing
facilities.
(c)-Small-scale maps are commonly used for mapping large areas where a lower order of accuracy
will suffice. They are suitable for general topographic coverage, applications in site-suitability
analysis, preliminary layout of expansive proposed construction projects, and for special
applications in forestry, geology, environmental impact and management, etc.

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Contours
As stated earlier, surveyors and engineers most often use contours to depict relief.
So it is important to understand contours and their characteristics.
A contour is a line connecting points of equal elevation. Since water assumes a
level surface, the shoreline of a lake is a visible contour, but in general, contours
cannot be seen in nature.
 On maps, contours represent the planimetric locations of the traces of level
surfaces for different elevations as Fig-17.1
 Contours are drawn on maps by interpolating between points whose positions
and elevations have been observed and plotted. As noted earlier, computerized
mapping and contouring systems are replacing manual plotting methods.
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 Figure 17.1 (a) Plan
view of contour
lines, (b) and (c)
profile views.

 The vertical distance between consecutive level surfaces forming the contours on a map (the
elevation difference represented between adjacent contours) is called the contour interval.

 For the small-scale U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle maps depending on the nature of the
terrain one of the following contour intervals is used: 5, 10, 20, 40, or 80
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ft.
For larger-scale maps used in engineering design, in the English system
of units contour intervals of 1, 2, 5, or 10 ft are commonly used. In the
metric system, a contour interval of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, or 10 m is generally
selected. Fig 17.2 is a topographic map having 10-ft contours..

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The contour interval selected depends on a map’s purpose and scale, and upon
the diversity of relief in the area.
As examples, on a map to be used for designing the streets and water and sewer
systems for a subdivision, a contour interval of 1 or 2 ft would perhaps be
necessary,
whereas a 10- or 20-ft contour interval may be suitable for mapping a large
canyon to determine the reservoir capacity that would result from constructing a
dam.

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Characteristics of contour lines

1. Contour lines are continuous.

2. Contour lines are relatively parallel

3. A series of V-shape indicates a valley and the V’s point to higher elevation.

4. A series U shape indicates a ridge. The U shapes will point to lower elevation.

5. Evenly spaced lines indicate an area of uniform slope

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Contour Line Characteristics-cont.

6. A series of closed contours with increasing elevation indicates a hill and a

series of closed contours with decreasing elevation indicates a depression.

7. Closed contours may be identified with a +, hill, or -, depression.

8. Closed contours may include hachure marks. Hachures are short lines

perpendicular to the contour line. They point to lower elevation.

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Contour Line Characteristics-cont.
9. The distance between contour lines indicates the steepness of the slope. The
greater the distance between two contours the less the slope. The opposite is also
true.
10. Contours are perpendicular to the maximum slope.
11. A different type of line should be used for contours of major elevations. For
example at 100, 50 and 10 foot intervals. Common practice is to identify the major
elevations lines, or every fifth line, with a bolder, wider, line.

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Keeping these characteristics in mind will:-

1) make it easier to visualize contours when looking at an area,

2) assist in selecting the best array of points to locate in the field when

conducting a topographic survey, and

3) prevent serious mistakes in drawing contours.

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Valleys and higher elevation

A series of V-shapes
indicates a valley and the
V’s point to higher
elevation

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U shapes and ridge

A series of U shapes indicates

a ridge. The U shapes will

point to lower elevation.

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Contour Spacing

Evenly spaced
contours indicate an
area of uniform slope.

Unevenly spaced contours indicates an area with variable slope.

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Hills and Depressions

A series of closed contours

with increasing elevation
indicates a hill.

Hills may be identified with a “+” with the elevations and depressions may be identified with a “-”.

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Hills and Depressions--cont.
A series of closed contours with decreasing elevation indicates a depression.

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Hachures
Hachures are short lines which are perpendicular to the contour line.
Used to indicate a hill or a depression.

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Contour Spacing
 Contours spaced close together indicate a steep slope.
 Contours spaced wider apart indicate less slope.

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Contour Spacing--cont.

Contours are
perpendicular to
maximum slope.

Different types of lines should be

used for contours of major
elevations. Common practice is to
identify the major elevations lines,
or every fifth line, with a bolder,
wider, line.

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Illustration of contours.

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Contour Intervals--cont.

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Illustration of contours.

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Illustration of contours.

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Illustration of contours.

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Illustration of contours.

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