B.

TECH LATERAL ENTRY TEST

SYLLABUS

• General introduction to Civil Engineering-Relevance of civil Engineering in

the overall infrastructural development of the country-major disciplines
• Introduction to buildings-Types and classification of structures -
buildings, towers, chimneys, bridges, dams, retaining walls, water
tanks, silos, roads, railways, runwaysand pipelines- Selection of
site-Components of a building and their functions
• Building rules and regulations-Relevance of NBC, KBR, CRZ
norms
• Building area-Plinth area, built up area, floor area, carpet area and
floor area ratio for a building as per KBR.

General introduction to Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is considered as the first discipline of the various
branches of engineering after military engineering. It includes the
designing, planning, construction, and maintenance of the infrastructure
such as roads, bridges, buildings, dams, canals, and water supply. Civil
engineers are trained in the interactions among structures, the earth, and
water, with applications ranging from highways to dams and water
reservoirs.
Civil engineering is intimately associated with the private and public
sectors, including the individual homeowners and international
enterprises.It is one of the oldest engineering professions, and ancient
engineering achievements due to civil engineering include the pyramids of
Egypt and road systems developed by the Romans. Civil Engineering has
been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence.
Most significantly, many civil engineers are involved with preserving,
protecting, or restoring the environment.
Sub-disciplines Of Civil Engineering
Civil engineering is a multiple science encompassing numerous
sub-disciplines that are closely linked with each other. The
various sub- disciplines of civil engineering are mentioned
below:
Structural Engineering: This discipline involves the design of structures
that should be safe for the users, be economical, and accomplish the
desired functions. The design and analysis should initially identify the
loads that act on the structures, stresses that are created due to loads, and
then design the structure to withstand these loads. It includes steel
structures, buildings, tunnels, highways, dams, and bridges.

Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnical engineering deals with soils,

rocks,foundations of buildings and bridges, highways, sewers and
underground water systems. Technical information obtained from the
sciences of geology,material testing, and hydraulics is applied in the
design of foundations and structures to ensure safety and economy of
construction.
Water Resources Engineering: This discipline of civil engineering
concerns the management of quantity and quality of water in the
underground and above ground water resources, such as rivers,lakes and
streams. Geographical areas are analyzed to forecast the amount of water
that will flow into and out of a water source. Fields of hydrology, geology,
and environmental science are included in this discipline of civil
engineering.

Environmental Engineering: : It is related to the science of waste

management of all types, purification of water, cleaning of contaminated
areas, reduction of pollution, and industrial ecology.Technical data obtained
due to environmental engineering assists the policy makers in making
decisions related to environmental issues.
Transportation engineering : It is a sub-discipline of civil engineering
which deals with the application of technology and scientific principles to
the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities for
any mode of transportation in order to provide the safe, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of
people and goods (transport).

Construction Engineering: It is a professional discipline that deals with

the designing, planning, construction, and management of infrastructures
such as roads, tunnels, bridges, airports, railroads,facilities, buildings,
dams, utilities and other projects.
Surveying : or land surveying is the technique, profession, art, and science
of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional positions of points and
the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is
called a land surveyor. These points are usually on the surface of theEarth,
and they are often used to establish maps and boundaries for ownership,
locations, such as the designed positions of structural components for
construction or the surface location of subsurface features, or other
purposes required by government or civil law, such as property sales.

RELEVANCE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING OVERALL

INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY

Infrastructure is the framework of supporting systems consisting of

transportation,communication, energy, lifeline facilities, Irrigation facilities etc..
That helps a community or a government to function, grow and
development.Infrastructure development in any country contributes to the
economic development of a particular nation.
Impacts of Infrastructural development on a country:
• Healthy and comfortable housing facility
• Improvement in Communication and Transportation.
• Protection from drought and flood
 • Safe domestic and industrial water supply
• Safe and scientific waste disposal
• Generation of electricity from nuclear, hydel, thermal, solar or wind energy •
Increase in food production
• Improved wealth, Prosperity, Standard of living.
Role of civil engineer in the infrastructural development of
country:
• Town and city planning
• Build suitable structures for the rural and urban areas for various utilities.
• Build tanks, dams to exploit water resources.
• Purify the water and supply water to needy areas like houses,
schools,offices, and agriculture fields.
• Provide a good drainage system and purification plants.
• Provide and maintain communication systems like roads, railways, harbours
and airports.
• Monitor land, water and air pollution and take measures to control them.
• Construction of housing, commercial and industrial complexes •
Rehabilitation and rebuilding of structures
• Creating pollution free environmental condition

Types and classification of structures

Main structures in civil engineering are:-buildings, towers, chimneys, bridges,
dams, retaining walls, water tanks, silos, roads, railways, runwaysand
pipelines.
Buildings: The building is a kind of structure which is built with materials
and including with foundation, plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys,
plumbing, and building services, fixed platforms,veranda, balcony, cornice
or projection, part of a building or anything affixed thereto or any
wallenclosing or intended to enclose any land or space and signs and
outdoor display structures. For example, houses, factories, shopping malls,
hospitals, etc.
A building aims to give shelter along with security. Other purposes such
as buildings serve several needs of society primarily as shelter from the
weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, supplied
electricity, and to comfortably live and work. There are many
different types of Buildings. Such Residential
Houses,SchoolsCollegesUniversities,Hospitals,Factories,
Workshops,Mosques, Churches, Temples,Malls etc.

RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

Towers: A tower is a tall structure. There are different towers like clock
tower, transmission tower, bell tower,radio tower, communication tower
etc.They are not intended for living .but for specific purposes.
• Transmission tower- for distribution of electric power.
• Communication tower- for transmission of communication signals
like microwave.
• Bridge tower- type of fortified tower built on a bridge.There is
usually a tower at both ends of the bridge.
• Castles\Forts- using the visibility of the surroundings.

Bridge Tower
 Chimneys: A chimney (flue) is a structure intended for the passing off
smoke, hot flue gases from the furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere.
Chimneys are kept in a vertical position so that the gases pass smoothly.
Chimneys can be found in buildings, steam locomotives, ships, brick
kilns,factories etc.. Since in factories the pollutant gases are passed out
through tall towers, the surrounding area is not polluted. In addition, the
dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the
immediate surroundings.The cross section of a chimney may be square,
rectangular or circular with smooth finish inside. The height of the chimney
stack should be at least one meter above the roof level. In big factories,tall
chimneys are provided to pass the exhaust gases and smoke at a higher level.
The following points must be kept in mind while constructing a tall
chimney-
• Refractory brick lining should be provided inside a chimney
when the temperature is expected to exceed 750 degree
centigrade.
• The total height of the chimney shaft should not exceed 12 times the
external diameter at the base or 10 times the least lateral dimension
at the base for chimneys of rectangular section. The general practice
is to construct the chimneys in lime mortar than cement mortar
because cement mortar is likely to disintegrate at high temperature.
• Wind pressure must be taken into account when designing a chimney.
Bridges: A bridge is a structure built to cross an obstacle. The obstacle
may be a river, railway line, road or canal.The components of a bridge are
Abutments, Pier, Deck Slab, Hand- rail, Beam,Bearings,Approaches,
Parapet etc.
Classification

Bridges are classified in different ways according to:

• Material of construction - Timber, Masonry, Steel, RCC, PSC.
• Purpose (Function) - Railway bridge, Road bridge, Pedestrian
bridge,Aqueduct (bridge over valley), Viaduct (canal over a
river)
• Position - Deck bridge, Through bridge, Semi through bridge
• Superstructure - Slab bridge, Truss bridge, Suspension bridge, Cable
stayed bridge
• Length - Culvert (less than 6 m, Minor bridge (6 to 60 m), Major
bridge(above 60 m)
• Method of connection of different parts- Rivet, weld, Pin
• Position - Straight, Skew
Dams: Dams are structures constructed across rivers to store water.
The water may be used for drinking, irrigation or hydro electric power
generation.
There are different types of dams –
• Based on function
• Storage dam – This is constructed to store water. The stored
water may be used for irrigation,drinking or hydro electric
power generation.
• Flood control dam – This is temporarily constructed to store the
flood water and release it slowly so that the down- stream side
is safeguarded against the damaging effects of floods.
• Diversion dam - This is constructed to divert the water from the river
to a channel.
• Cofferdam – A temporary structure constructed to divert
water so that the new dam or bridge can be constructed.
• Based on material of construction-Earthen dam , Masonry dam ,
Concretedam
Retaining walls: Retaining walls are walls made of concrete or masonry
to retain soil. Generally they are constructed on the approaches to bridges,
for making gardens in sloping ground and to protect soil from erosion etc.
To design a retaining wall, it is required to find out the pressure exerted by
the soil on the retaining wall. This can be found out by using Rankin’s
theory or Coulomb’s theory. The pressure depends on the unit weight of
soil, angle of internal friction,cohesive strength of soil and height of the
wall. There is a tendency for the retained material to move down the slope
due to gravity.This Creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which is
termed as active earth pressure. If the retaining wall yields towards the
retained soil. The wall is subjected to passive earth pressure. If there is no
movement, the earth pressure is called earth pressure at rest.
 Retaining wall

Water tanks:
A water tank is a container to store and distribute water. The water may be
used for drinking,irrigation or fire suppression. It can be at the ground level
or on an elevated stage. They may be of steel, concrete or plastics and of
circular or rectangular shape. Nowadays for rainwater harvesting also tanks
are being used. Rainwater tank (sometimes called a rain barrel ) is a water
tank used to collect and store rainwater runoff from roof tops via rain
gutters. A rainwater catchment or collection (also known as "rainwater
harvesting") system can yield2358 litres of water from 2.54 cm of rain on a
93 m2 roof area. Rainwater tanks are devices for collecting and maintaining
harvested rain. These tanks are installed to use rain water for later use. and
aid self- sufficiency. Stored water may be used for watering gardens,
agriculture, flushing toilets, in washing machines, washing cars, and also for
drinking, especially when other water supplies are unavailable.Underground
rainwater tanks can also be used for retention of stormwater for release at a
later time.
 water tank

Silos: Silo is a structure, typically cylindrical in shape in which grain, cement

or other materials are stored. There are different types of silos such as the
low-level mobile silo and the static upright silo. Mobile silos are normally of
capacities from 10 to 75 tons. They are simple to transport and are easy to set
up on site. These mobile silos generally come equipped with an electronic
weighing system with digital display and printer. This allows any quantity of
cement or powder discharged from the silo to be controlled and also provides
an accurate indication of what remains inside the silo. The static upright silos
(Tower silos) have capacities from 20 to 80 tons. They are also cylindrical in
shape, 4 to 30 m in diameter and 10 to 84 m in height. The stored materials
are unloaded into wagons,trucks or conveyors. Silos can be of steel or
concrete.
Roads: Roads are for the transport of men and material from one part of the
country to another part. In India, roads are classified under the following
categories - National High way, State Highway,Major District Road, Other
District Road and Village Road.The road structure has the following
components – Sub grade, Sub base, Base, Base Coat and Wearing Coat.

Runways: A runway is a rectangular area of land in an airport prepared for

the landing and takeoff of aircraft.Runways may be a man-made surface
(asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface.It is generally
paved. Shoulders are provided on either side of a runway. They act as safety
zones should an airport move out of the runway during take off or landing.
Stop ways are provided at the ends of a runway to accommodate an aircraft
that overshoots or undershoots a runway during landing or an aborted
take-off.
Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally
the magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading in deca degrees: A runway
numbers 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south(180°), runway 27 points
west (270°) and runway 36 points to the north (360° rather than 0°).
 Railways: Railways are the life lines of a nation. For transporting men and
material, the railway network is very essential. It was in 1853 that the first
train started its maiden journey from Bombay to Thane a distance of 15 Kms.
Now Indian railways have got 65000 route Kms of track, carrying about 23
million passengers per day by 19000 trains connecting about 8000 stations..
It also runs about 7,000 freight trains carrying about 3 million tonnes of
freight every day. It is the largest Government department and is the only
department which has got a separate annual budget. Trains run over two rails
which are kept at a specific distance on a transverse member called sleeper.
The distance between the two rails is called gauge which is 1676 mm for
Broad gauge and 1000 mm forMetre gauge track. Below the rails, there is a
layer of broken stones (ballast) of about 20 cm.
Previously the sleepers were of wood, steel or cast iron. But now
concrete sleepers are being used. Similarly earlier the trains were hauled
by steam locomotives but now the same are hauled by diesel electric
locomotives.
 Pipelines:
Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe.Liquids
and gases are transported through pipelines. Pipelines exist for the
transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels - such as oil, natural gas
and biofuels - and other fluids including sewage, slurry and water.
Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation over
long distances. Pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to
transport solid capsules.
Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or
oil, pose special safety concerns and there have been various accidents.
Pipelines can be the target of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks.
In war,pipelines are often the target of military attacks.
Advantages of transport through pipes:
• Large-scale transportation of natural gas by tanker truck or rail is
not feasible
• Pipelines are a safe and efficient means of transporting
large quantities of crude oil and natural gas over land.
• Pipelines are more cost-effective than the alternative
transportation options.

Building rules and regulations-Relevance of NBC, KBR, CRZ

norms

National Building Code ofIndia. (NBC)

The National Building Code of India (NBC) is a comprehensive building
Code. It is a national instrument providing guidelines for regulating the
building construction activities across the country. It serves as a Model Code
for adoption by all agencies involved in building construction works - the
Public Works Departments, other government construction departments,
local bodies or private construction agencies. The Code mainly
 contains administrative regulations,development control rules and
general building requirements; stipulations regarding materials,
structural design and construction (including safety); and building
and plumbing services.
Buildings may be classified according to various parameters
like occupancy,load transfer,materials used and fire resistance.

Types of buildings as per National Building Code

The National Building Code of India (Part iii 2005) classifies buildings as
per occupancy in the following nine groups:

Group A – Residential Buildings – These are the buildings in which

sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential purposes with
or without cooking or dining or both facilities.
Group B: Educational Buildings-The buildings used for
schools, colleges, or other training institutions that involve
assembly during the day for instruction, education are
considered
educational buildings.
Group C: Institutional Buildings
A building or part of a building that is used for the purposes such as
medical or other treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or
mental illness, disease or infirmity; care of infants, or aged persons in
which the liberty of inmates is restricted are categorized as institutional
buildings.They normally provide sleeping accommodation for the
occupant.
Group D: Assembly Buildings
These shall include any building or part thereof where a group of not less
than 50 people gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious and for
similar purposes. Ex- Cinema halls, theatres, exhibition halls, museums,
restaurants etc.
 Group E: Business Buildings
This group includes any building or part of a building that is used as a
shop, store either wholesale or retail.

Group F - Mercantile
Shops, stores markets area upto 50 sqm
Underground shopping centres, departmental stores with area more than 500 sqm
Group G: Industrial Buildings
These include buildings or part thereof in which materials of all kinds are
manufactured or processed.
Group H: Storage Buildings
These are buildings used for the storage of goods, vehicles or
animals.
Group I: Hazardous Buildings

These are buildings used for storage, handling, manufacturing of highly

explosive materials or products which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity
producing poisonous gases or explosions.

Kerala Building Rules (KBR)

Nowadays no one can construct a building as per his/ her wishes. It is controlled by
your Local administration ie. Panchayath, Municipality of Corporation of the place
where your property is situated. Also every State has their own restrictions for the
constructions based on a set of Laws approved by the Law makers.
Kerala Building Rules were implemented in the state in the year 1968. The Laws
were applicable to Municipalities and Corporations, which are urban in nature. The
availability of Land for spacious construction was a challenge in Urban areas.
Since the laws were implemented successfully, the chance of making faulty of
unscientific constructions was much reduced and so these rules help all of us to
lead a peaceful life.

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules

The coastal areas of seas, bays, creeks, rivers, and backwaters which get
influenced by tides up to 500 m from the high tide line (HTL) and the land
between the low tide line (LTL) and the high tide line have been declared as
coastal regulation zone (CRZ) in 1991.

Importance of Regulation of Coastal Zones

● Protection of ecologically Sensitive Areas like mangroves, coral reefs

which act as a shield against tsunami and cyclone
● Improving the lives of coastal communities like fishing communities
● Resilient measures for mitigating impacts of Climate Change and
high-intensity Cyclones
● To balance development with conservation of the coastal environment.
Selection of site

The first and foremost step in construction is to select an appropriate site for
the building.
A properly selected site of the building will increase the beauty of
building without any extra
expense. The selection of site for a project depends upon the purpose of
building,mode of construction, available fund, future development if any
required, accessibility from road, school, hospital etc. In case of marshy land
or water logged area we have to spend more money for the construction of
foundation and there is chances of settlement if the building is not properly
designed..
The following points are to be considered while selecting the site for
any building:
• Selected site should not be undulating because it will increase the
cost of leveling.
• It should be very near to the road otherwise transportation of the
building materialis a big problem.
• Civic services like water supply, electric lines, telephone
lines,drainage sewers should be rear to the site.
• It should not be a waterlogged area and ground water should be at least
1.5mbelow the ground level.
• It should not be a made up land, otherwise foundation cost will be high.
• Selected sites should be as far as large enough to provide sufficient light
andair to the building.
• The site should not be in a depression and it should have a general
slope away from the building for easy drainage.
• The site should possess good soil at reasonable depth for reducing the
cost of foundation.
• The selected site should have adequate space to accommodate all the
essential accessories required in the building.
• Site should not be located near workshops and factories since such locations
are subjected to noise/air pollution.
• Site along the seashore is good from the entertainment point of view but
sea breeze is not good for health and it may also lead to corrosion of
metal fittings.
 • Type of building also affects the selection of the site. For example
Industrial building should be situated outside the city,residential
building must be near toSchools & hospitals, and
a public building should be located in an open area so that all
the requirements should be fulfilled.

For industrial building selection of site should be such that:

• Almost all raw materials should be available from the nearby areas.
• There may not be any problem for labour and labourers should be
available from near by area.
• The site must have enough space for future expansion of industry and
for the construction of residential area for workers.
• Suitable disposal plant to treat waste produced must be available at
a reasonable distance.
• Climate plays an important role in selecting the site for industrial
buildings. For example, a cool and moist weather is more favorable for
weaving and textile mills.

Components of a building and their functions

A building essentially consists of two parts, namely the super structure, which is
above the ground level and substructure, or foundation, which is below the
ground level.
Foundation is the part of a building, which transfers the entire load of the
building to the subsoil.
Plinth: The portion of the building below the ground floor level and
above the level of the ground, is called plinth. The top level of the plinth
is called plinth level. The plinth height should be such that after proper
leveling of the ground around the building, there should not be
any possibility for the rain water to enter the ground floor.Built up
covered area at the floor level of the building is known as the plinth area.
Doors: Doors are the openings provided in walls of a building to connect
the internal rooms and also used as a means of free movements inside
and outside of the building.
Windows and ventilators: Windows are openings provided in the outer
walls of buildings for the entry of light and air into the room.Ventilators
are openings provided in the outer walls for the escape of foul gases from
rooms.
Ventilators are provided on the top of walls i.e. very near to roof level.
Windows are provided below the door level i.e.top level of doors and
windows are at same.
Walls: These are vertical components constructed to divide the space into
various rooms. Walls transfer load from the roof and live load above it to the
foundation.
Column: A column may be defined as an isolated vertical load bearing
member.And its width should not be less than its thickness and it should not
be greater than four times its thickness.

Pier: Pier is a vertical load bearing member similar to column, except that it
is bonded to a load bearing wall at the side to form an integral part of wall
and it extends to the full height of the wall. Usually a pier is constructed to
increase the stiffness of the wall to carry additional vertical concentrated
load.

Lintels: Lintels are reinforced cement concrete structures provided over the
opening such as doors, windows, etc. and are used to transfer the load of
wall above the opening to the supporting wall on either side of opening.

Sunshade: The slab projecting from the external wall just above the doors,
windows, ventilators, etc. are called sunshades. It protects doors and
windows from direct sunlight and rain.
Floors: Floors are horizontal surfaces, which divide a building into
different levels and over which the occupants of the building move about.
The floors provided on the top of the buildings are called first floor, second
floor, etc. depending upon their relative
position. Sub-floor is the structural part of the floor which supports all the
loads and the flooring material like marble, tile, mosaic etc are provided
over this subfloor as a finishing layer.

Basement floors: They are floors of room below the ground level
Roofs: The top most part of a building, which covers the space enclosed by
the wall, is called roof. Main two components of oof are roof decking and
roof covering. Roof decking is the structural part which supports the roof
covering.
Stairs: These are structures used to climb from one floor to another.Stairs
consists of a number of steps. Height of step is 15 cm and
width of step varies from 25 to 30 cm.
Partition: An interior non-load bearing wall of full wall height or part
storeyheight used for dividing floor area into different sections
Parapet: These are structures constructed over the roof slab or sunshade for
better appearance of building and for safe usage of roof surface.
Plinth area, built up area, floor area, carpet area and floor area ratio

Plinth means the portion of a structure between the surface of the

surrounding ground and surface of the floor, first above the ground.
Plinth Area means area of the building at the plinth level, does not include
the area of open porch,uncovered staircase and the like.
Carpet Area' means the usable floor area excluding the area of staircases, lift
wells, escalators, ducts, toilets, air condition plant room and electrical room.
[Note:- For calculating carpet area, twenty percent of the floor area shall be
deducted from the total floor area in each floor;]
 Floor Area' means the built up area of a building at any floor level;
'Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R.)' means the quotient obtained by dividing the total
floor area on all floors by the area of the plot;
Built-up area or the plinth area is the gross area of the property. It is the total
size of the house, including the carpet area, the thickness of the walls,
balcony, terrace, ducts and utility area. Fundamentally, the built-up area is
10-15 percent more than the carpet area of the house.

THE END