LSSC COMPUTER SCIENCE

CHAPTER 7: COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

Objectives
• Describe different network standards, and protocols.
• Explain the OSI reference model.
• Produce a report comparing the OSI and TCP reference models.
• Discuss internet protocols (TCP, UDP, IP, FTP …) (essay).

Lesson 1: Networking Standards

Lesson 1 focuses on networking standards, which are specifications that define how devices communicate and
interoperate in a network. Understanding networking standards is crucial for designing, implementing, and
maintaining networks that are interoperable, scalable, and secure. Here are the key points covered in this
lesson:

1. Importance of Networking Standards:

• Networking standards ensure compatibility and interoperability between different devices and systems.
• They provide a common set of rules and protocols for communication, enabling devices from different
manufacturers to work together.
• Standards facilitate the development of reliable and scalable networks and promote innovation.

2. Network Standards Organizations:

Several organizations develop and maintain networking standards. Some prominent ones include:

• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): Develops standards for wired and wireless
communication, including Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO): Develops standards for various industries, including
networking protocols.
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): Develops and maintains internet standards, such as the TCP/IP
suite.
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): Develops standards for the World Wide Web, including HTML,
CSS, and XML.

3. Examples of Networking Standards:

Ethernet:
A widely used standard for wired local area networks (LANs), defining the physical and data link layers. It
specifies the format of data packets and the method for accessing the shared network medium.

Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11):

A standard for wireless local area networks (WLANs), enabling wireless communication between devices. It
defines the protocols for transmitting data over radio waves.

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TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):
The fundamental protocol suite of the Internet, providing reliable and connection-oriented communication. It
consists of the TCP, UDP, IP, and other protocols necessary for data transmission across networks.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

A standard for communication between web browsers and web servers, facilitating the retrieval and display
of web pages. It defines the format of requests and responses exchanged between clients and servers.

DNS (Domain Name System):

A protocol that translates domain names into IP addresses, allowing users to access websites using human-
readable names. It provides a distributed database that maps domain names to corresponding IP addresses.

Lesson 2: Network Protocols

Lesson 2 covers network protocols, which are sets of rules and procedures that govern the communication
between devices in a network. Network protocols specify the format, timing, sequencing, and error handling
of data during communication. Here are the key points covered in this lesson:

1. Definition and Purpose of Network Protocols:

Network protocols define how devices establish and terminate connections, address data packets, handle
errors, and ensure data integrity.

They specify the rules for data transmission, including packet structure, addressing, and flow control.
Protocols also govern how devices handle errors, retransmissions, and acknowledgments.

2. Protocol Suites:
Network protocols are typically organized into protocol suites, which are collections of protocols that work
together to provide end-to-end communication.

A common protocol suite is the TCP/IP suite, which is the foundation of the Internet and consists of several
protocols, including TCP, UDP, IP, and others. Protocol suites provide a layered approach to communication,
with each layer responsible for specific functions and interacting with adjacent layers.

3. Common Network Protocols:

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A reliable, connection-oriented protocol that ensures the delivery
of data packets in the correct order. It provides error detection, flow control, and congestion control
mechanisms.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A lightweight, connectionless protocol that provides fast, but unreliable,
communication. It does not guarantee packet delivery or order.
• IP (Internet Protocol): The core protocol of the TCP/IP suite, responsible for addressing and routing data
packets across networks. It provides logical addressing and packet forwarding.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A protocol for transferring files between a client and a server on a network.
It provides commands for file transfer, directory listing, and file management.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for sending and receiving email. It defines how
email messages are transmitted between mail servers.

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• POP (Post Office Protocol) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Protocols for retrieving email
from a mail server. They specify how email clients interact with mail servers to access and manage email.

NB: Understanding network protocols is crucial for network administrators, engineers, and technicians to
effectively configure, troubleshoot, and secure network communications.

Lesson 3: The OSI and TCP reference models

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) reference model are two widely used frameworks for understanding and
implementing network protocols. While the OSI model is a theoretical model, the TCP/IP model is a practical
implementation widely used in the Internet. Let's compare and discuss these two models:

1. OSI Reference Model:

The OSI reference model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the
late 1970s. It consists of seven layers, each representing a specific function in the process of communication
between two devices. Here are the layers of the OSI model, from the bottom up:

a. Physical Layer:
Deals with the physical transmission of data over the network medium. It defines the electrical, mechanical,
and procedural aspects of physical connections.

b. Data Link Layer:

Provides error-free transmission of data frames between adjacent nodes over a physical link. It handles issues
such as data framing, error detection, and flow control.

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c. Network Layer:
Manages the addressing and routing of data packets across multiple networks. It determines the optimal path
for data transmission and handles logical addressing.

d. Transport Layer:
Ensures reliable and transparent end-to-end data transfer. It provides mechanisms like segmentation,
sequencing, flow control, and error recovery. Examples of protocols at this layer include TCP and UDP.

e. Session Layer:
Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications running on different devices. It facilitates
synchronization, checkpointing, and recovery of data exchange.

f. Presentation Layer:
Handles data representation, encryption, and compression. It ensures that data from the application layer of
one system can be understood by the application layer of another system.

g. Application Layer:
This is the layer closest to the end-user and provides services directly to applications. It includes protocols for
specific applications such as HTTP (web browsing), SMTP (email), FTP (file transfer), etc.

2. TCP/IP Reference Model:

The TCP/IP reference model is a practical implementation of network protocols used on the Internet. It is
named after two of its most important protocols, TCP and IP. The TCP/IP model consists of four layers, which
are more loosely defined compared to the OSI model. Here are the layers of the TCP/IP model, from the
bottom up:

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a. Network Interface Layer:
Similar to the OSI Data Link and Physical layers, it handles the physical transmission of data and addresses
network-specific protocols. It encompasses both the OSI's Physical and Data Link layers.

b. Internet Layer:
Corresponds to the OSI Network Layer. It is responsible for addressing, routing, and fragmentation of packets.
The IP protocol operates at this layer, providing logical addressing and packet forwarding.

c. Transport Layer:
Combines the functionalities of the OSI Transport and Session layers. It ensures reliable and secure data
transfer between hosts. TCP and UDP are the most commonly used protocols at this layer.

d. Application Layer:
Encompasses the functions of the OSI Presentation and Application layers. It provides application-specific
protocols for services such as email (SMTP), web browsing (HTTP), file transfer (FTP), and domain name
resolution (DNS).

3. Comparison:
While both models provide a framework for understanding network protocols, there are some key differences
between them:

a. Layer Structure:
The OSI model has seven layers, while the TCP/IP model has four layers. The OSI model provides a more
detailed and comprehensive framework, whereas the TCP/IP model is more streamlined.

b. Practical Implementation:
The TCP/IP model is widely used in practical network implementations, particularly on the Internet. It is the
backbone of the internet protocol suite, while the OSI model is more of a theoretical concept.

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c. Compatibility:
The TCP/IP model is compatible with the actual protocols used on the internet, making it easier to understand
and implement in real-world scenarios. The OSI model, on the other hand, is more of a conceptual model and
is not directly implemented in networking devices.

NB: In conclusion, while the OSI model provides a comprehensive and detailed framework for understanding
network protocols, the TCP/IP model is widely used in practical network implementations. The TCP/IP
model's four-layer structure aligns more closely with the protocols used on the internet, making it the de facto
reference model for networking.

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