Class-8

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 BIOLOGY

. Text book for class VIII

Published By
Jasmin S Rahim
Manjappara Education and Charitable Trust B.Ed .
. ...... College,Ayoor

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 CONTENT

i. What is cell........................................9
ii. Structure of cell ................................14
a. Plasma membrane.......................14
b. Cell Wall......................................17
c. Nucleus........................................18
d. Cytoplasm....................................21
iii. Cell organelles...................................21
a. Endoplasmic reticulum..................22
b. Golgi apparatus..............................23
c. Lysosomes......................................24
d. Mitochondria..................................25
e. Plastids............................................27
f. Vacuole...........................................28

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 Cell- Structure and
1 Function

When you look around, you see both living and non-living things. You
must have wondered and asked yourself – ‘what is it that makes an
organism living, or what is it that an inanimate thing does not have which
A living thing has’ ?

https://youtu.be/pc3s_1Cbgac?si=sHLWtwKCm76lhklm

The answer to this is the presence of the basic unit of Life

– the cell in all living organisms. All organisms are composed of cells.
Some are composed of a single Cell and are called unicellular
organisms while others, like us, composed of many cells, are called
multicellular organisms.

WHAT IS A CELL?
https://youtu.be/URUJD5NEXC8?si=XOm7iQt79MTLkaxQ

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Unicellular organisms are capable of,

(i) independent existence and

(ii) performing the essential functions of life.

Anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not ensure

independent living. Hence, cell is the Fundamental structural and
functional unit of all living organisms. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first
saw and described a live cell. Robert Brown later discovered the
nucleus. The invention of the microscope and Its improvement
leading to the electron microscope revealed all the structural details of
the cell.

While examining a thin slice of cork, Robert Hooke saw

that the cork resembled the structure of a honeycomb consisting of
many little compartments. Cork is a substance which comes from the
bark of a tree. This was in the year 1665 when Hooke made this
Chance observation through a self-designed microscope. Robert
Hooke called these boxes cells. Cell is a Latin word for ‘a little room’.
This may seem to be a very small and Insignificant incident but it is
very important In the history of science. This was the very first Time
that someone had observed that living Things appear to consist of
separate units. The Use of the word ‘cell’ to describe these units is
Being used till this day in biology.

Let us find out about cells.

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 What are Living Organisms made Up of?

--------Activity--------

• Let us take a small piece from an onion bulb . With the help
of a pair of forceps, We can peel off the skin (called Epidermis)
from the concave side (inner layer) of the onion. This layer can
be put immediately in a watch-glass containing water. This will
prevent the peel from getting folded or getting dry. What do we
do with this peel?
• Let us take a glass slide, put a drop of water on it and transfer a
small piece of the peel from the watch glass to the slide. Make
sure that the peel is perfectly flat on the slide. A thin camel hair
paintbrush might be necessary to help transfer the peel. Now we
put a drop of safranin solution on this piece followed by a cover
slip. Take care to avoid air bubbles while putting the cover slip
with the help of a mounting needle. Ask your teacher for help.
We have prepared a temporary mount of onion peel. We can
observe this slide under low power followed by high powers of
a compound microscope.

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 What do we observe as we look through
the lens? Can we draw the structures that
We are able to see through the
microscope.

Pic:Cells of an onion peel

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 What are these structures?

These structures look similar to each other. Together they form

a big structure like an onion bulb! We find from this activity that
onion bulbs of different sizes have similar small structures visible
under a microscope. The cells of the onion peel will all look the same,
regardless of the size of the onion they came from. These small
structures that we see are the basic building units of the onion bulb.
These structures are called cells. Not only onions, but all organisms
that we observe around are made up of cells. However, there are also
single cells that live on their own.

More to Know
Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the cells in a cork
slice with the help of a primitive microscope. Leeuwenhoek (1674), with the Improved
microscope, discovered the free living cells in pond water for the first time. It was
Robert Brown in1831 who discovered the nucleus in the cell. Purkinje in 1839 coined
the term ‘protoplasm’ for the fluid substance of the cell. The cell theory, that all the
plants and animals are composed of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life, was
presented by two biologists, Schleiden (1838)And Schwann (1839). The cell theory was
further expanded by Virchow(1855) by suggesting that all cells arise from pre-existing
cells. With the discovery of the electron microscope in 1940, it was possible to observe
and understand the complex structure of the cell and its various organelles.

The shape and size of cells are related to the specific function they
perform. Some cells like Amoeba have changing shapes. In some
cases the cell shape could be more or less fixed and peculiar for a
particular type of cell; For example, nerve cells have a typical shape.

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Each living cell has the capacity to perform certain basic functions
that are characteristic of all living forms. How does a living cell
perform these basic functions? We know that there is a division of
labour in multicellular organisms such as human beings. This means
that different parts of the human body perform different functions.
The human body has a heart to pump blood, a stomach to digest food
and so on. Similarly, division of labour is also seen within a single
cell. In fact, each such cell has got certain specific components within
it known as cell organelles. Each kind of cell organelle performs a
special function, such as making new material in the cell, clearing up
the waste material from the cell and so on. A cell is able to live and
perform all its functions because of these organelles. These organelles
together constitute the basic unit called the cell. It is interesting that
all cells are found to have the same organelles, no matter what their
function is or what organism they are found in.

Questions

1. Who discovered cells, and how?

2. Why is the cell called the structural and functional unit of life?

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 What is a Cell Made Up of? What is the
Structural Organisation of a Cell?

We saw above that the cell has special components called

organelles. How is a cell organised? If we study a cell under a
microscope, we would come across three features in almost every
cell; plasma membrane, nucleus and Cytoplasm. All activities inside
the cell and interactions of the cell with its environment are possible
due to these features.

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 i. PLASMA MEMBRANE OR CELL
MEMBRANE

This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents
of the cell from its external environment. The plasma membrane
allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials in and out of
the cell. It also prevents movement of some other materials. The cell
membrane, therefore, is called a selectively permeable membrane.

How does the movement of

substances take place into the
cell? How do substances move
out of the cell?

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 Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move
across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion. There is
spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high
concentration to a region where its concentration is low.

Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water

molecules through such selectively permeable membrane is called
osmosis. The movement of water across the plasma membrane is also
affected by the amount Of substance dissolved in water. Thus,
osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high-water
concentration through a selectively permeable membrane to a region
of low water concentration till equilibrium reached.

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 ________Activity _______

• Put dried raisins or apricots in plain water and leave them for some
time. Then place them into a concentrated solution of sugar or salt.
You will observe the following:

(a)Each gains water and swells when placed in water.

(b) However, when placed in the concentrated solution it loses

water, and consequently shrinks.

Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain

water through osmosis. Absorption of water by plant roots is also an
example of osmosis. Thus, diffusion is important in exchange of
gases and water in the life of a cell. In additions to this, the cell also
obtains nutrition from its environment. Different molecules move in
and out of the cell through a type of transport requiring use of energy.
The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic
molecules called lipids and proteins. However, we can observe the
structure of the plasma membrane only through an electron
microscope. The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell
to engulf in food and other material from its external environment.
Such processes are known as endocytosis. Amoeba acquires its food
through such processes.

__________Activity ______________

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• Find out about electron microscopes from resources in the school
library or through the internet. Discuss it with your teacher.

Questions

1. How do water move in and out of the cell? Discuss.

2. Why is the plasma membrane called a selectively permeable

membrane?

ii. CELL WALL

Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid

outer covering called the cell wall. The cell wall lies outside the
plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of
cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural
strength to plants. When a living plant cell loses water through
osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell
away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.
Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to
withstand very dilute(hypotonic) external media without bursting. In
such media the cells tend to take up water by osmosis. The cell swells,
building up pressure against the cell wall. The wall exerts an equal
pressure against the swollen cell. Because of their walls, such cells

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can withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium than
animal cells.

I want to know why plant cells need cell

walls?

Surrounding the cell membrane is required by the plants for

protection. Plant cells need protection against variations in
temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric moisture, etc.
They are exposed to these variations because they cannot
move.

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_______Activity_______

Take a clean tooth pick, or a matchstick with the tip broken. Scrape
inside of your cheek without hurting it. Place it in a drop of water on a
glass slide. Add a drop of iodine and place a coverslip over it.
Alternatively, add 1-2 drops of methylene blue solution. Observe it
under the microscope. You can identify the cell membrane, the
cytoplasm and nucleus. A cell wall is absent in animal cells.

ii. Nucleus

https://youtu.be/fV-sG3od1k0?si=5A-Lpc8wb7jW-xal

It is an important component of the living cell. It is generally

spherical and located in the centre of the cell. It can be stained and
seen easily with the help of a microscope. Nucleus is separated from
the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear membrane. This
membrane is also porous and allows the movement of materials
between the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus. With a
microscope of higher magnification, we can see a smaller spherical
body in the nucleus. It is called the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus

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contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. These carry genes
and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to
the offspring. The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell
divides. Nucleus, in addition to its role in inheritance, acts as control
centre of the activities of the cell. The entire content of a living cell is
known as protoplasm. It includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
Protoplasm is called the living substance of the cell. Gene is a unit of
inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of a hereditary
characteristic from parents to offspring. This means that your parents
pass some of their characteristics on to you.

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 The nucleus of the bacterial cell is not well
organised like the cells of multicellular organisms. There is no
nuclear membrane. The cells having nuclear material without
nuclear membrane are termed prokaryotic cells. The organisms
with these kinds of cells are called prokaryotes (pro :Primitive;
karyon : nucleus). Examples are bacteria and blue green algae.
The cells, like onion cells and cheek cells having well organised
nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as eukaryotic
cells. All organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are
called eukaryotes. (eu :True; karyon: nucleus).

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 iii. CYTOPLASM

The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It

also contains many specialised cell organelles. Each of these
organelles performs a specific function for the cell. Cell organelles are
enclosed by membranes. In prokaryotes, beside the absence of a
defined nuclear region, the membrane-bound cell organelles are also
absent. On the other hand, the eukaryotic cells have nuclear
membrane as well as membrane-enclosed organelles. The significance
of membranes can be illustrated with the example of viruses. Viruses
lack any membranes and hence do not show characteristics of life
until they enter a living body and use its cell machinery to multiply.

CELL ORGANELLES.
https://youtu.be/JL19uv7NT7s?si=_5ddSOmEoblQsWGu

Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate
from the external environment. Large and complex cells, including
cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical activities to

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support their complicated structure and function. To keep these
activities of different kinds separate from each other, these cells use
membrane-bound little structures (or ‘organelles’) within themselves.
This is one of the features of the eukaryotic cells that distinguish them
from prokaryotic cells. Some of these organelles are visible only with
an electron microscope. We have talked about the nucleus in a
previous section. Some important examples of cell organelles which
we will discuss now are: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, mitochondria and plastids. They are important because
they carry out some very crucial functions in cells.

ANIMAL CELL. PLANT CELL.

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 i ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of

membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like long tubules or round
or oblong bags (vesicles). The ER membrane is similar in structure to
the plasma membrane. There are two types of ER– rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). RER
looks rough under Microscope because it has particles called
Ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes, which are present
in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacture. The
manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell
depending on need, using the ER. The SER helps in the manufacture
of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function. Some of these
proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is
known as

Membrane biogenesis. Some other proteins and lipids function as

enzymes and hormones. Although the ER varies greatly in appearance
in different cells, it always forms a network system. Thus, one
function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of
materials(especially proteins) between various regions of the
cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The ER also
functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of

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the biochemical activities of the cell. In the liver cells of the group of
animals called vertebrates SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying
many poisons and drugs.

ii GOLGI APPARATUS

The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, consists of

a system of membrane-bound vesicles (flattened sacs)Arranged
approximately parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns. These
membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER and
therefore constitute another portion of a complex cellular membrane
system. The material synthesised near the ER is Packaged and
dispatched to various targets Inside and outside the cell through the
Golgi Apparatus. Its functions include the storage, modification and

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packaging of products in vesicles. In some cases, complex sugars
maybe made from simple sugars in the Golgi Apparatus. The Golgi
apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes

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 iii LYSOSOMES

Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with

digestive enzymes. These enzymes are made by RER. Lysosomes are
a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. These help to keep the cell
clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell
organelles. Foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or
food, as well as old organelles end up in the lysosomes, which break
complex substances into simpler substances. Lysosomes are able to do
this because they contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of
breaking down all organic material. During the disturbance in cellular
metabolism, for example, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may
burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are
also known as the ‘suicide bags ‘of a cell.

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 iv MITOCHONDRIA

Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.

Mitochondria have two membrane coverings. The outer membrane is
porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded these folds increase
surface area for ATP generating chemical reactions. The energy
required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate)
molecules.ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body
uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and
for mechanical work. Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense

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that they have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore,
mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins.

MITOCHONDRIA

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 V. PLASTIDS

Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are two types of plastids
– chloroplasts (coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or colourless
plastids). Chloroplasts containing The pigment chlorophyll are known
as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in
plants. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in
addition to chlorophyll. Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which
materials such as starch, oils and protein granules are stored. The
internal organisation of the chloroplast consists of numerous
membrane layers embedded in a material called the stroma. These are
similar to mitochondria in external structure. Like the mitochondria,
plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes

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 PLASTIDS

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 Vi VACUOLES
Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. Vacuoles are
small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles.
The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the
cell volume. In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide
turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Many substances of importance in the
life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles. These include amino acids,
sugars, various organic acids and some proteins. In single-celled
organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that
the Amoeba has consumed. In some unicellular organisms, specialised
vacuoles also play important roles in expelling excess water and some
wastes from the cell.

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Questions

1. Can you name the two organelles we have studied that contain
their own genetic material?
2. If the organisation of a cell is destroyed due to some physical or
chemical influence, what will happen?
3. Why are lysosomes known as suicide bags?
4. Where are proteins synthesised inside the cell?

Each cell thus acquires its structure and ability to function

because of the organisation of its membrane and organelles in specific
ways. The cell thus has a basic structural organisation. This helps the
cells to perform functions like respiration, obtaining nutrition, and
clearing of waste material, or forming new

proteins. Thus, the cell is the fundamental structural unit of living

organisms. It is also the basic functional unit of life.

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 What you have Learnt ?

• The fundamental organisational unit of life is the cell.

• Cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of

lipids and proteins.

• The cell membrane is an active part of the cell. It regulates

the movement of materials between the ordered interior of the
cell and the outer environment.

• In plant cells, a cell wall composed mainly of cellulose is

located outside the cell membrane.

• The presence of the cell wall enables the cells of plants,

fungi and bacteria to exist in hypotonic media without
bursting.

• The nucleus in eukaryotes is separated from the cytoplasm

by double-layered membrane and it directs the life processes
of the cell.

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• The ER functions both as a passageway for intracellular
transport and as a manufacturing surface.

• The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membrane-bound

vesicles that function in the storage, modification and
packaging of substances manufactured in the cell.

• Most plant cells have large membranous organelles called

plastids, which are of two types – chloroplasts and
leucoplasts.

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 Let us assess

1. Comparison of Plant cell and Animal cell

Sl. Part Plant cell Animal cell

no.
1 Cell Membrane Present Present

2 Cell Wall Present Absent

3 Nucleus

4 Nuclear Membrane

5 Cytoplasm

6 Plastids

7 Vacuole

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 2. Identify the parts of Plant Cell.

Extended activities

❖ Visit a laboratory for senior secondary students in your school

Or in a neighbouring school. Learn about the functioning of a
microscope in the laboratory. Also observe how a slide is
observed under the microscope.

❖ Prepare a model of animal cell and flag on the parts

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 Did You Know?
The cells in the outermost layer of our skin are dead. An
average adult carries around about 2 kg of dead skin.
Billions of tiny fragments of the skin are lost every day.
Every time you run your finger on a dusty table, you shed
a lot of old skin.

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