UNIT 11 IN-SITU AND EX-SITU

CONSERVATION
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 In-situ Conservation
11.3.1 National Park
11.3.2 Biosphere Reserves
11.3.3 Wild life Sanctuary

11.4 Ex-situ Conservation

11.4.1 Colony Conservation
11.4.2 Human Care Methods

11.5 Case Studies

11.6 Let Us Sum Up
11.7 Keywords
11.8 Suggested Further Reading/References
11.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

11.1 INTRODUCTION
The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held
in Rio de Janeiro, discussed biodiversity conservation and helped place this
critical issue on the world leaders agendas ( WRI/UNEP/UNDP. 1992). While
the ranks of those concerned with biodiversity seem to have diversified and
increased, but conservation of biodiversity is still lacking.( Burley, F. William.
1988.)

World Conservation Union has clarified the definition to solve these problems
and show the value of “biodiversity.” IUCN interprets biodiversity to include all
species of plants, animals, and microorganisms and the ecosystems (including
ecosystem processes) to which they belong. Usually considered at three different
levels genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity, it is the
complicated variety of living organisms that interact with abiotic substances and
gradients to sustain life at all hierarchical levels. (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991).
Furthermore, each of these levels provides economic and social benefits to
mankind. Although it is predictable that maximum biodiversity exists in a small
number of tropical countries, significant diversity also occurs in temperate zones
and in aquatic ecosystems as well. Although integrated regional development
planning has no claim to moral superiority, it does provide a framework for
making such very difficult choices. That biodiversity conservation must be a
part of development planning efforts is evident ( Bibby et al. 1992)
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 Biodiversity conservation is consummate in a number of ways. Ex-situ methods
are species conservation in botanic gardens, zoos, gene banks, and captive
breeding programs. In-situ methods employ conservation areas as “warehouses”
of biological information. Many scientists and conservationists consider that
methods are accessible to distinguish easily which of the millions of species and
varieties will have economic value; in-situ conservation through the protection
of natural areas should be the primary means for the maintenance of these
resources. However, a rigid preservation is virtually impossible to implement
and even less likely to be maintained over time (Cairns, 1987). Considering
trends in population growth and the urgency of economic development
especially in the developing countries a more appropriate response would be
to follow proactive alternatives to high-impact development activities, and to
apply carefully formulated strategies for in-situ methods that would contain
protected areas in the development mix.

Advantages for Conservation

• A reservoir of wild animals and plants is conserved, thus enabling them to
be introduced, if need be, in the surrounding areas.
• Biological diversity involves immediate benefits to the society such as
recreation and tourism.
• Biodiversity protection serves as an insurance policy for the future.
• Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential
ecological diversity to protect the continuity of food chains.
• The genetic diversity of plants and animals is conserved.
• It ensures the sustainable utilization of life support systems on earth.
• It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the scientific community.

11.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the concept of In-situ conservation;
• Explain Biosphere reserve, National park, and Wildlife Sanctuary;
• Define Ex-situ conservation;
• And explain the methods of ex-citu conservation in details.

11.3 IN-SITU CONSERVATION

The word in-situ refers for ‘on-site conservation’, it is the process of protecting
an endangered plant or animal species in their natural habitat, either by
protecting or cleaning up the habitat or by defending the species from predators.
The in-situ conservation maintains recovering populations in the surrounding
where they have developed their unique properties and helps to make certain
the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation within their environments.
Wildlife and livestock conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation.
Sufficiently large reserves are maintained to enable the target species to exist in
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large numbers (Eisner, Thomas. 1990). The population size must be adequate to
enable the necessary genetic diversity to survive within the population, so that
it has a good chance of continuing to adapt and evolve over time. This reserve
size can be calculated for target species by examining the population density
in naturally occurring situations (Riklefs et al, 1984). The reserves must then
be protected from invasion or destruction by man and other disaster. The main
examples of such reserves are national parks, biosphere reserves and wild life
sanctuaries. (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Main Examples of In-situ Conservation (Modified from (Eisner, 1990)

11.3.1 National parks

A national park is a large reserve of natural or semi-natural land, declared by
a national government, set aside for its features of predominantly unspoiled
landscape, flora and fauna, permanently dedicated for public enjoyment,
education and inspiration, and protected from all interferences other than essential
management practices, so that its natural attributes are preserved. Depending
on the area and terrain national parks provide number of opportunities to the
visitors to have a close encounters with the wild life. The wildlife national parks
in India spread across the country offer a fascinating diversity of terrain, flora
and fauna, e.g. Kaziranga national park in east famous for one horned rhino,
Kanha national park in the centre, Nagarhole national park in south, Corbett
national park in north and Sundarbans national park in the west part of India.
(Eisner, Thomas. 1992)

India’s first national park was established in 1935 as Hailey National Park,
presently known as Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. By 1970, India had
only five national parks. India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project
Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation dependent species in 1972. As
of April 2007, 96 national parks encompass a combined 38029 km² (1.16%
of India’s land area). (McNeely, J.A. 1988A) total of 166 national parks have
been authorized. Plans are in progress to establish the remaining scheduled
parks. A few main national parks are listed in Table 11.1 alongside their state.

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 Table 11.1: Important national parks in India. ( Modified from McNeely
1988, Kumar et al, 2020)
National Park State Started Important wildlife
Kaziranga Assam 1974 One horned Rhino
Gir Gujarat 1975 Indian Lion
Dachigam J&K 1981 Hangul
Bandipur Karnataka 1974 Elephant
Periyar Kerala 1982 Elephant, Tiger
Kanha M.P 1955 Tiger
Corbett Uttarakhand 1935 Tiger
Dudhwa U.P 1977 Tiger
Ranthambore Rajasthan 1980 Tiger
Sariska Rajasthan 1982 Tiger
The Great Himalaya Himachal Pradesh 1984 Snow Leopord
Sundarban West Bengal 1984 Royal Bengal Tiger
The Great Himalaya
Karnataka 1988 Elephant, Jackal, Tiger
Sundarban

11.3.2 Biosphere reserves

Biosphere reserves are areas of conserved ecosystems promoting solutions to
reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are
internationally recognized, nominated by national governments and remain under
independent jurisdiction of the located states. Biosphere reserves demonstrate
integrated management of land, water and biodiversity. Collectively, biosphere
reserves form a world network and known as the World Network of Biosphere
Reserves (WNBR). Within this network, exchanges of information, experience
and personnel are provided. There are over 500 biosphere reserves present in
over 100 countries. (McNeely, et. al. 1990.

The Indian government has recognized 15 Biosphere Reserves of India, which

protect larger areas of natural habitat than a national park and often comprise
one or more national parks along buffer zones that are unlock to some economic
uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected
region, but also to the inhabited human communities of these regions. Seven
of the fifteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere
Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme
list, viz. Gulf of Mannar, Sundarbans, Nanda Devi, Nilgiri, Simlipal, Pachmarhi
and Nokrek Biosphere Reserves. The complete list of biosphere reserves in
India is given in Table 11.2.

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Table 11.2: List of biosphere reserves in India ( modified from Meganck,
and Saunier, 1983, Kumar et al, 2020)

Area
Name   Location   State   Type   Year  
(km²)
Indian part of
Gulf of Gulf of Mannar
Tamil Nadu Coasts 1989 10500
Mannar between India and
Sri Lanka
Part of delta
of Ganges and Gangetic
Sunderbans West Bengal 1989 9630
Barahamaputra Delta
river system
Parts of Chamoli
District,
West
Nanda Devi Pithoragarh Uttarakhand 1988 5860
Himalayas
District & Almora
District
Part of Wynad,
Nagarhole,
Bandipur and Tamil Nadu,
Nilgiri Mudumalai, Kerala and Western Ghats 1986 5520
Nilambur, Silent Karnataka
Valley and
Siruvani Hills
Part of
Deccan
Simlipal Mayurbhanj Orissa 1994 4374
Peninsula
district
Parts of Betul,
Hoshangabad
Pachmarhi M.P. Semi-arid 1999 4926
and Chhindwara
district
East
Nokrek Part of Garo Hills Meghalaya 1988 820
Himalayas
Part of Kuchh,
Rajkot and
Gyan Bharti Gujarat Semi-arid 2008 12454
Surendranagar
district
Part of Kokrajhar,
Bongaigaon,
East
Manas Barpeta, Nalbari, Assam 1989 2837
Himalayas
Kamrup and
Darrang District
Southern most
Andaman
islands of
Great Nicobar and Nicobar Islands 1989 885
Andaman and
Islands
Nicobar Islands

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 Parts of Siang and Arunachal
Dehang East Himalaya 1998 5112
Debang valley Pradesh
Part of Annupur,
MP,
Achana-kamar Dindori and 2005 3835
Chhattishgarh
Bilaspur district
Part of
Kanchan-
Kanchanjunga Sikkim East Himalaya 2000 2620
junga
hills
Neyyar, Peppara
and Shenduruny
Agasthaya-
wildlife sanctury Kerala Western Ghats 2001 1828
malai
and adjoining
areas
Part of Dibrugarh
Dibru
and Tinsukia Assam East Himalaya 1997 765
Saikhowa
district
11.3.3 Wildlife Sanctuaries
Wildlife Sanctuary refers to the zoned area set aside by law for the preservation
of wildlife where hunting is strictly prohibited and wildlife to be reproduced
naturally. The wildlife sanctuaries in India are home to around 2000 bird species,
3500 mammal species, nearly 30000 species of insects and more than 15000
varieties of plants. (Myers, 1993) In India over 441 wildlife sanctuaries are
established, which are scattered all across the country. These sanctuaries attract
the tourists with their beautiful landscapes, amazing rock formation and diverse
range of flora and fauna. Most of these sanctuaries were originally private
hunting grounds of the former Indian aristocratic families (Reid et al. 1993).
These sanctuaries are habitat to several endangered species of animals and
birds like the Asiatic Elephant, the Royal Bengal tiger, the Snow Leopard and
the Siberian Crane. Many of the forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries of India
are well-known for some particular species of animals.

The wildlife sanctuaries of India also contain the bird sanctuaries. The different
species of birds that one can discover over in these sanctuaries is truly fascinating,
e.g. Great Indian bustard, Himalayan monal pheasant, lammergiers, choughs,
white-bellied sea eagle, white breasted swiftlet, fruit pigeons and griffon
vultures , etc. The Bharatpur bird sanctuary known as largest bird sanctuary
in Asia, which is much more well-known as a refuge of migratory birds like
barons, ibis, pelicans and painted storks that make it their temporary home
during the winter months. Some important wildlife sancturies are listed in Table
11.3.

Table 11.3 Some Important wild life sanctuaries of India. (Rylands 1991)
Name of Sanctuary State Important wildlife
Ghana Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan 300 species of birds
Hazaribagh Sanctuary Bihar Tiger, Leopard
Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary Haryana Migratory birds
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 NalSarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujrat Water birds
Abohar Wildlife sanctuary Punjab Black Duck
Mudanmalai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamilnadu Tiger, Elephant,
Leopard
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamilnadu Water birds
Jaldapara Wild life sanctuary W.Bengal Rhinoceros, elephant,
Tiger
Wild Ass Sanctuary Gujarat Wild ass, wolf, nilgain,
Chikara
Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. What is biodiversity conservation

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2. What is In-situ conservation?

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3. Define National Parks with Examples

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4. Describe Biosphere reserves with examples

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 5. What do you understand by wildlife sanctuary? Describe its importance
with suitable examples.

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11.4 EX-SITU CONSERVATION

Ex-situ conservation refers to ‘off-site conservation’. It is the method of
protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing part of the
population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, e.g. Zoos,
botanical gardens and seed banks (Figure 2). This includes conservation of
genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species and draws on a
diverse body of techniques and facilities. (Bibby et al. 1992)

Figure 2. Main Examples from Ex-situ Conservation

11.4.1 Colony relocation

In ex-situ conservation techniques, the best suitable method of maximizing a
species chance of continued existence is by relocating part of the population to
a less threatened location. It is very much difficult to mimic the environment
of the original colony location given the large number of variables defining the
original colony. It is also technically challenging to uproot or trap the required
organisms without undue harm. A wild example of colony relocation is the
case of the endangered Santa Cruz Tarweed, a new colony, which was revealed
during a mid 1980s survey at the site of a planned shopping center in as western
Contra Costa, California. Once the city of Pinole had determined to approve the
shopping center, the city relied on a relocation plan developed by Earth Metrics
scientists to remove the entire colony to a nearby location immediately east of
Interstate Highway 80 within the Caltrans right-of-way (Burley, 1988.)

11.4.2 Human care methods

Zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, etc. are the most conventional methods of
ex-situ conservation. These are protected houses of specimens for breeding and
reintroduction into the wild. Endangered plants may also be conserved in part
through seedbanks or germplasm banks. The term seedbank occasionally refers
to a cryogenic laboratory facility in which the seeds of certain species can be
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preserved for up to a century or more without losing their fertility. The Wollemi
Pine is an example of a plant that is being preserved via ex-situ conservation.

The role of zoos in conservation is very limited by space and by expense. It has
been estimated that world zoos could sustain roughly 900 species at population
sizes of about 100-150 individuals per species. This population is just large
enough to avoid inbreeding effects. Genetic management of captive populations
is essential to ensure genetic diversity is preserved as far as possible. There are
various international computerized record systems available which catalogue
genealogical data on individual animals in zoos around the world. Mating
can therefore be arranged by computer, to ensure that genetic diversity is
conserved and in-breeding can be reduced. Research has led to great advances
in technologies for captive breeding. This involves techniques such as artificial
insemination, embryo transfer and long-term cryogenic storage of embryos.
These techniques are all valuable because they allow new genetic lines to be
introduced without having to transport the adults to new locations.

The aquaria have largely been used for display and educational facilities.
However, they are assuming new significance in captive breeding programmes.
Growing threats to freshwater species in meticulous are leading to the
development of ex-situ breeding programmes. (Mora et al, 2015)

Populations of plant species are much easier than animals to maintain artificially.
They require less care and their requirements for particular habitat conditions
can be provided more readily. It is also much easier to breed and propagate
plant species in captivity. There are roughly 1500 botanic gardens world-wide,
holding 35000 plant species (>15% of the world’s flora). The Royal Botanic
Gardens of England contains an estimated 25000 species. Plant genetic diversity
can be preserved ex-situ through the use of seed banks. Seeds are small but
tough and have evolved to survive all manner of adverse conditions. The result
of storing seeds under frozen conditions is to slow down the rate at which they
lose their ability to germinate. Seeds of crop plants such as maize and barley
could probably survive thousands of years in such conditions, but for most
plants, centuries is probably the norm. This makes seed banking an attractive
conservation option. A few ex-situ conservation institutes are as given below.
(Rawat and agarwal,2015)
• National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
NBPGR is located in New Delhi. Here agricultural and horticultural crops
and their wild relatives are preserved by cryopreservation of seeds and
pollen by using liquid nitrogen at a temperature -196 °C. Varieties of rice,
pearl, millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco,
poppy etc. have been preserved successfully in liquid nitrogen for several
years without losing seed viability.
• National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR)
NBAGR is located at Karnal, Haryana. It preserves the semen of
domesticated bovine animals.
• National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR)
They provide the development of a facility of conservation of varieties of 235
 crop plants/trees by tissue culture.
• International Efforts for Biodiversity Conservation
The following are the major initiatives of generating and maintaining
biodiversity data and information at the global level.
• IOPI and Species 2000
The International Organization for Plant Information (IOPI) aims “to
produce a checklist of the world’s vascular plant species through a
coordinated effort involving numerous specialists and institutions”. IUBS
in their 25th General Assembly in 1994 introduced SPECIES 2000 program
the goal of which is “to provide a uniform and validated quality index of
names of all known species for use as a practical tool”.
• BIONET
BONET (Biodiversity Action Network) was established in 1993 with aims
“to help build international agreement among governments on concrete
actions and targets needed to achieve the objectives of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) with a special focus on forests and marine/
coastal systems and to help catalyze specific national-level action to
implement the CBD”. Its mission is to advocate the effective implementation
of the Biodiversity Convention worldwide, primarily through coordinated,
joint NGO programs and information dissemination designed to catalyze
governmental action.
• CENPLANK
The Centre for Plankton Collection, Sorting and Identification
(CENPLANK) of Szczecin and Gynia, Poland, is an international project,
the objective of which is to focus on long-term changes in the status of
coastal marine ecosystems using plankton as a means of inventorying and
understanding variability in the species biodiversity and abundance levels
of ichthyplankton (fish, egg and larvae) and zooplankton components of
large marine ecosystems.
• GBIF
The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) was proposed by
the OECD Megascience Forum working group on biological informatics
subgroups for biodiversity informatics. The broad goal of the GBIF is
to provide the most up-to-date and thorough biodiversity information in
timely manner to policy and decision makers, science and society, in all
countries.
• DIVERSITAS
Diversitas programme of IUBS (International Union of Biological Sciences),
SCOPE (the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment) of
the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and UNESCO was
initiated in 1992. DIVERSITAS attempts “to inventorying and monitoring
of biodiversity at the global level”. It has 3 main themes: (i) inventorying
and monitoring of overall biodiversity at all levels from genes to ecosystems
incorporating both marine and terrestrial ecosystem, (ii) identify scientific
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 issues and promote research requiring international coordination on the
ecosystem function of biodiversity, the origins, maintenance and the
practical consequences of current changes on the natural and managed
ecosystems that support mankind, and (iii) develop prioritized agendas for
research.
• GOOS
Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) was set up by UNESCO’s
International Oceanographic Commission. It is a permanent international
system for gathering, processing and analyzing oceanographic observation
from the open ocean and from coastal and shelf seas.
• GTOS
The Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) is a joint initiative
by the FAO, WMO, UNEP, UNESCO and the International Council of
Scientific Unions (ICSU). GTOS aims “to provide scientific coordinated,
permanent, observational framework with adequate spatial coverage and
temporal continuity to produce data to enable to detect, quantify, locate
and understand changes in the capacity of terrestrial ecosystems to support
sustainable development”. (Shirko et al, 2020).

Key points from the Convention on Biological Diversity

The aim of the Convention on Biological Diversity is ‘the conservation

of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources. The convention stipulates that Parties must:
• support technology and biotechnology transfer predominantly to developing
countries;
• create an information exchange between the parties on all subjects suitable
to biodiversity;
• encourage technical and scientific cooperation between parties (particularly
to developing countries) to enable them to apply the convention;
• ensure that countries that provide genetic resources have access to the
benefits arising from them; and
• Provide financial resources to developing countries/parties to enable them
to carry out the requirements of the convention.
• build up national strategies for the protection and sustainable use of
biological resources;
• establish protected areas, restore degraded ecosystems, control alien
species, and establish ex-situ conservation facilities;
• set up training and research programmes for the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity and support such programmes in developing countries;
• promote public education and awareness of the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity;
• know the right of governments to regulate access to their own genetic 237
 resources, and, wherever possible, grant other Parties access to genetic
resources for environmentally sound uses;

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. What is Ex-siu conservation?

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2. Which Technique is required for Ex-siu conservation?How it helps in
preserving the biodiversity?

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3. Mention the names of institutes working in the field of ex-situ conservation?

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11.5 CASE STUDIES

Successful reintroduction of the nene goose (Branta sandvicensis) in Hawaii

Nene goose inhabits grazed pastures and upland scrub in Hawaii. In 1967,
the nene goose was designated as endangered species due to its low numbers
and lack of self-sustaining populations. Predation by introduced species (viz.
mongooses, feral cats and dogs) and commercial over-hunting contributed to
the decline of this flightless goose. Only 30 individuals remained by 1950.
Through captive breeding and careful re-introduction to lowland areas with rich
grass foraging habitat and low densities of non-native mongooses, it has now
been possible to establish new viable populations. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service estimates the costs of the complete recovery of the nene goose at about
US$ 9.8 million.

Komodo National Park: Addressing direct and indirect pressures

Komodo National Park encompasses four islands as well as their surrounding

waters in Indonesia. The park is home to many endemic species, including the
238
famous komodo dragons. The threats to biodiversity include human population
pressure, tourism, invasive alien species and destructive fishing practices. Park
authorities, assisted by the central government and environmental organizations,
have developed an adaptive management plan, e.g. zoning, enforcement,
capacity-building for alternative livelihoods, awareness programmes, promotion
of sustainable tourism as a means of financing, coral monitoring and research.
The measures taken have reduced blast fishing by over 80%.

The Micronesia Conservation Trust: Capacity-building and financing

The Micronesia Conservation Trust (MCT) was established as the national

funding mechanism to implement the archipelago’s National Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). Through a grants system with clear
criteria, it provides long-term funding to community and non-governmental
organizations that work to conserve sites identified as Areas of Biodiversity
Significance in the NBSAP. The MCT also contributes to the establishment
of public-private partnerships to address the environmental challenges faced
by the small islands as well as to share best practices. Twenty-four priority
sites have benefited from the Micronesia Conservation Trust and more will be
benefited in the near future.

11.6 LET US SUM UP

We have studied in this unit about the importance In-situ conservation. We
have discussed in detail the various methods of In-situ and also and Ex-situ,
for biodiversity conservation their advantages and limitations. We have also
described various international efforts that have been made to protect the
biodiversity.

11.7 KEY WORDS

UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development):
A major conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Participants discussed
environmental issues, notably continued production of toxic materials in
industry and elsewhere.

IUCN: The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international

organization functioning in the field of biodiversity conservation and sustainable
use of natural resources.

Conservation: The protection of the natural world not allowing something to

be wasted damaged or destroyed

Wild life: Birds, plants, animals, etc. that are wild and live in a natural
environment.

Sanctuary: A place where birds or animals are protected from being hunted.

Zoo: A park where many kinds of wild animals are kept so that people can look
at them and where they are bred, studied and protected

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 11.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bibby, C.J. et al. (eds.). 1992. Putting Biodiversity on the Map: Priority Areas
for Global Conservation. Cambridge, U.K. International Council for Bird
Preservation.

Burley, F. William. 1988. “Monitoring Biological Diversity for Setting Priorities

in Conservation.” In E.O. Wilson (ed.), Biodiversity. Washington, D.C. National
Academy Press, pp. 227-230.

Cairns, J. Jr. 1987. “Disturbed Ecosystems as Opportunities for Research in

Restoration Ecology.” In William Jordan et al. (eds.), Restoration Ecology: A
Synthetic Approach to Ecological Research. New York. Cambridge University
Press, pp. 307-319.

Eisner, Thomas. 1990. “Prospecting for Nature’s Chemical Riches.” Issues in

Science and Technology, vol. 6. pp. 31-34.

Eisner, Thomas. 1992. “Chemical Prospecting: A Proposal for Action.” In F.H.

Bormann and S.R. Kellert (eds.), Ecology, Economics, and Ethics: The Broken
Circle. New Haven. Yale University Press, pp. 196-202.

IUCN/UNEP/WWF. 1991. Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable

Living. Gland, Switzerland. World Conservation Union.

Krackhardt, David, and Jeffrey R. Hanson. 1993. “Informal Networks: The

Company Behind the Chart.” Harvard Business Review, vol. 71, no. 4. pp. 104-
111.

Kumar A, Yadav R, Patil M , Kumar P , Zhang L, Kaur A, Sharma S, Hussain

S , Tokas D and Singh A, 2020, Sustainable Management of National Parks
and Protected Areas for Conserving Biodiversity in India, Chapter · May 2020
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.92435

McNeely, J.A. 1988. “Values and Benefits of Biological Diversity.” In J. A.

McNeely (ed.), Economics and Biological Diversity. Gland, Switzerland.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp.
9-36.

McNeely, J.A., et. al. 1990. Conserving the World’s Biological Diversity. Gland,
Switzerland, and Washington, D.C. World Conservation Union and World
Resources Institute.

Meganck, R.A., and R.E. Saunier. 1983. “What Trinidad and Tobago Must
Know about Managing Our Natural Resources.” The Naturalist, vol. 4, no. 8.

Mora, C., Tittensor, D.P., Adl, S., Simpson, A.G. and Worm, B., 2011. How
many species are there on Earth and in the ocean?. PLOS Biology. 9(8):
e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. Retrieved on 26 May 2015.

240 Myers, Norman. 1993. “The Question of Linkages in Environment and

Development: We Can No Longer Afford to Split the World into Disciplinary
Components.” BioScience, vol. 43, no. 5. pp. 302-310.

OAS. 1987. Minimum Conflict: Guidelines for Planning the Development of

American Humid Tropical Environments. Washington, D.C. General Secretariat,
Organization of American States.

Rawat U.S. and Agarwal N.K.,2015 Biodiversity: Concept, threats and

conservation, Environment Conservation Journal 16(3) 19-28, 2015 ISSN
0972-3099 (Print) 2278-5124 (Online)

Reid, Walter V., et al. 1993. Biodiversity Prospecting: Using Genetic Resources
for Sustainable Development. Washington, D.C. World Resources Institute.

Rylands, A.B. 1991. The Status of Conservation Areas in the Brazilian

Amazon. Washington, D.C. World Wildlife Fund.

Shirko S, Abbas J, Mahmood S, 2020, Conserving populations at the edge

of their geographic range: the endangered Caspian red deer (Cervus elaphus
maral) across protected areas of Iran, Biodiversity and ConservationVolume,
Springer 29 Issue 14, December 2020

Wilson, E.O. 1984. Biophilia. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.

WRI/UNEP/UNDP. 1992. World Resources 1992-93. New York. Oxford

University Press.

11.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Biodiversity conservation focuses on the sustainable management of
wealth of biological diversity, comprising land and marine ecosystem,
agroecosystems and production areas and ex-situ conservation.
2. Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is known as in
situ conservation. This includes the establishment of
• National parks and sanctuaries
• Biosphere reserves
• Nature reserves
• Reserved and protected forests
• Preservation plots
• Reserved forests

A national park is a large reserve of natural or semi-natural land, declared by

a national government, set aside for its features of predominantly unspoiled
landscape, flora and fauna, permanently dedicated for public enjoyment,
education and inspiration, and protected from all interferences other than
essential management practices, so that its natural attributes are preserved.
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 Important national parks in India.

Kaziranga Assam
Gir Gujarat
Dachigam J&K
Bandipur Karnataka
Periyar Kerala
Kanha M.P
Corbett Uttarakhand
Dudhwa U.P
Ranthambore Rajasthan
Sariska Rajasthan

4. Biosphere reserves

Biosphere reserves are areas of prevented ecosystems promoting solutions to

reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. The Indian
government has established 15 Biosphere Reserves of India, which protect
larger areas of natural habitat than a national park and often include one or
more national parks along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses.
viz. Gulf of Mannar, Sundarbans, Nanda Devi, Nilgiri, Simlipal, Pachmarhi
and Nokrek Biosphere Reserves.

Wildlife Sanctuaries

Wildlife Sanctuary refers to the zoned area set aside by law for the preservation
of wildlife where hunting is strictly prohibited and wildlife to be reproduced
naturally. The wildlife sanctuaries in India are home to around 2000 bird
species, 3500 mammal species, nearly 30000 species of insects and more than
15000 varieties of plants.

Important wild life sanctuaries of India.

Name of sanctuary State

Ghana Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan
Hazaribagh Sanctuary Bihar
Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary Haryana
NalSarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujrat
Abohar Wildlife sanctuar Punjab

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1. Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally occur is
known as ex situ conservation. Here, animals and plants are reared or
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 cultivated in areas like zoological or botanical parks. Reintroduction of
an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has become extinct is
another form of ex situ conservation. For example, the Gangetic gharial
has been reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan where it had become extinct. Seedbanks, botanical, horticultural
and recreational gardens are important centres for ex situ conservation.
2. Ex-situ conservation is done by cryo preservative techniques i.e.
preservation of biodiversity at -191oc with the help of liquid nitrogen. We
can preserve bringal, turnip, tomato, potato, and ladyfinger.
3. NBRI-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow
NBPGR-National Bureau of Plant genetic resources,Delhi
NBAGR-National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal
NDRI-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
NFPTCR-National Facility of Plant Tissue Culture and Repository Karnal

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