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CS2032 - Computer Organization

and Assembly Language

Sheeza Zaheer
Lecturer
University of Management and Technology
Lahore Campus
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Memory & Processor

Basics
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MEMORY
 Bits, Bytes and Double words
byte byte 4

0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 01 0
word

❑ Each 1 or 0 is called a bit.

❑ Group of 4 bits = Nibble
❑ Group of 8 bits = Byte
❑ Group of 16 bits = Word
❑ Group of 32 bits = Double words

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 Memory
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● Information processed by the computer is stored in its
memory.
■ Program
■ Data
● Not all accumulated information is needed by the CPU at the
same time
■ Therefore, it is more economical to use low-cost storage devices to
serve as a backup for storing the information that is not currently
used by CPU
● Memory Operations:
■ Read (Fetch contents of a location)
■ Write (Store data at a location)

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 Contd..
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● The memory unit that directly communicate with CPU is called the
main memory

● Devices that provide backup storage are called auxiliary memory

● The main memory occupies a central position by being able to

communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory
devices through an I/O processor

● A special very-high-speed memory called cache is used to increase

the speed of processing by making current programs and data
available to the CPU at a rapid rate

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 Contd..
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 Main Memory
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● Most of the main memory in a general purpose computer is
made up of RAM integrated circuits chips, but a portion of the
memory may be constructed with ROM chips
● Memory Circuits:
■ RAM
○ Program Data and Instructions
○ Read and Write
■ ROM
○ ROM is used by the manufacturers to store system programs.
○ Only Read

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 Cache
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● A special very-high-speed memory called cache is used to
increase the speed of processing by making current programs
and data available to the CPU at a rapid rate.

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 Memory Organization
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● Memory is organized into a collection of bytes.

● Each byte is identified by a number – Address

■ Number of bits in an address depends on the processor
■ Example:- Intel 8086: 20-bit address, Intel 80286: 24-bit
address

● Data stored in a memory byte – Contents

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 Contd..
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● Number of bits used in the address determines the number of
bytes that can be accessed by the processor.

● Example: If processor uses 20-bit address, it can access 220 =

1048576 bytes = 1 MB of memory

● Question: If processor uses 24-bit address, how many bytes of

memory can be accessed?

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 Memory Segments
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● A memory segment is a block of 216 (or 64 K)

consecutive memory bytes.
● Each segment has a number.
● Within a segment, memory location is
specified by an offset. This is the number of
bytes from the beginning of the segment.

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 F0000
E0000 13
D0000
C0000
B0000
A0000 8000:FFFF
90000
One Segment
80000
70000 8000:0000
60000
50000
segment of f set
40000
30000
20000
10000
00000

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 Segment : Offset Address
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● Logical Address = Segment : Offset

■ 16-bit segment, 16-bit offset
● Physical Address = Segment * 10h + Offset
■ 20-bit address
● Example:
Logical Address = A4FB:4872
Physical Address = A4FB0h + 4872h = A9822h

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 Exercise
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A memory location has a physical address 4A37Bh. Compute:

a. The offset address if the segment number is 40FFh.

b. The segment number if the offset address is 123Bh.

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 Program Segments
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● A typical machine language program is loaded
into following different memory segments:
■ Code Segment
■ Data Segment
■ Stack Segment
● Stack is a data structure used by processor to
implement procedure calls.

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BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS

 Machine Instruction Elements
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● Each instruction must have elements that contain the
information required by the CPU for execution.
● These elements can be:
■ Operation code: Specifies the operation to be performed (e.g..
ADD, I/O). The operation is specified by a binary code, known as
the operation code, or opcode.
■ Source operand reference: The operation may involve one or
more source operands, that is, operands that are inputs for the
operation.
■ Result operand reference: The operation may produce a result.
Also called destination operand.
■ Next instruction reference: This tells the CPU where to fetch the
next instruction.
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Reference: http://cnx.org/content/m29425/latest/
 Instruction Representation
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● Within the computer, each instruction is represented by a
sequence of bits.
● 16 bits instruction
■ 4 bit opcode, 6 bit operand 1, 6 bit operand 2
■ 4 bit opcode, 12 bit operand
● 32 bits instruction
● 64 bits instruction

Figure: A Simple Instruction Format

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 Contd..
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● Binary representations of machine instructions is difficult to
remember.
● Use a symbolic representation of machine instructions.
● Opcodes are represented by abbreviations, called mnemonics,
that indicate the operation. Common examples include:

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 Instruction Types
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● Data processing: Arithmetic and logic instructions
● Data storage: Memory instructions
● Data movement: I/O instructions
● Transfer of Control: branch instructions

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 No. of Addresses in an Instruction
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● Three addresses
■ Operand 1, operand 2, result
● Two addresses
■ Source
■ Destination
● One addresses
■ Source or Destination
● Zero address
■ Zero-address instructions are applicable to a special
memory organization, called a Stack. A stack is a last-in-
first-out set of locations.
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 Types of Operands
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● Machine instructions operate on data.
● The most important general categories of data are:
■ Addresses
■ Numbers
■ Characters

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 Basic Operations – Processor
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● Execute the software by fetching instruction from memory
● Look for any external signal and react accordingly
■ Input signals from keyboard or mouse etc.

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 Basic Instruction Cycle
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● Fetch → Decode → Execute
● Fetch
1. Fetch an instruction from memory
2. Decode the instruction to determine the operation
3. Fetch data from memory if necessary
● Execute
4. Perform the operation on the data
5. Store the result in memory if needed

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 Contd..
● Internal CPU Registers used in instruction 26

cycle:
■ Program Counter (PC) = Address of instruction
■ Instruction Register (IR) = Instruction being
executed
■ Accumulator (AC) = Temporary Storage

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 Detailed Steps
● Address in the Program Counter register 27

■ Program Counter (PC) holds address of next instruction to fetch

● Fetch the instruction from the memory
● Increment the Program Counter
■ Unless told otherwise
● Instruction loaded into Instruction Register (IR)
● Decode the type of instruction
● Fetch the operands
● Execute the instruction
● Store the results

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 Example Program Execution
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 Instruction Cycle State Diagram
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● Instruction Fetch
■ Read instruction from memory into processor
● Instruction Operation Decoding
■ Determine the type of operation to be performed and operand(s)
to be used.
● Operand Address Calculation
■ If operation involves reference to an operand in memory or I/O,
then determine the address of operand.
● Operand Fetch
■ Fetch from memory or read from I/O
● Data Operation
■ Perform the operation
● Operand Store
■ Write into memory or out to I/O if required
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