Forging: - A compressive force is applied to the metal with a hammer to give it the required

shape.

Example of modern component (by forging)  engine crankshafts, connecting rods and gears.

Mention the classified of forging process by working temp and type the advantages of each
one??
1) Hot working .  A) most common . B) high deformation . C) lower strength but increase
ductility .
2) Cold working .  increase strength due to strain hardening .

Mention the classified of forging process by type of load ??

1) Forge hammer .  applied impact load .
2) Forge press .  applied gradual (‫ )تدريجي‬load .

Forging refine microstructure . ( explain How ???)

 eliminate the hidden defect such as ( hair crack ) .
 rearranges the fibrous macrostructure to conform with the metal flow .
 By successful design of dies  metal flow during the process can be employed to promote
the alignment of the fibers with the anticipated direction of maximum stress .
. ‫) المتوقع‬sse fsibff( ‫ ) مع اتجاه ال‬srebif ( ‫ بحيث تدفق المادة يمكن استخدامه لتعزيز انتظام ال‬, ‫التصميم الناجح للقوالب‬

Forging starting material  cast ingot.

 heat to its plastic deformation temp and then upset or “kneaded(‫ ”)تع ّجنت‬between dies to the
desired shape and size .

During hot forging  coarse grain is broken up and replaced (‫ )استبدالها‬by finer grain .
 low density areas (‫)مناطق منخفضة الكثافة‬, gas porosity (‫ )ومنخفضة المسامية‬and
micro shrinkage inherent (‫ )والمعزولة‬in the cast metal are  consolidated (‫ )يتم دمجهم‬through the
reduction of the ingot , achieving structure integrity .

In the forging the mechanical properties improve through three things , write them ??
1) Elimination of the cast structure .
2) Enhanced density .
3) Improve homogeneity .

Type the grain flow comparison between forging , machined and cast bar’s ??
1) Forged bar  Directional alignment oriented in a direction requiring maximum strength
 then increase resistance to fatigue and impact.
 2) Machined bar  unidirectional grain flow , has been cut when changing contour  more
liable to fatigue and more sensitivity to stress corrosion cracking .
3) Cast bar  No grain flow , or directional strength is achieved .

Classification of forging operation:-

 Cold forging  at room temp.
 Hot forging  at high temp  make metal easier to shape & less likely to fracture .
 Warm forging  at temp between room temp and hot forging temp .
 Forging part  weight less than a kilogram to 170 metric ton  required further
processing to achieve finish part .

Types of forging operations :-

1) Open-die forging  work part compressive between two flat dies , allowing metal
to flow laterally with minimum constrain .
2) Impression-die forging  Die contain cavity or impression that is important to work
part.  flash is created .
3) Flashless forging  (close die forging) , work part is completely constrained in die .
 no excess flash is created .

What is the work principle of open-die forging ??

- compression of work part ( solid cylindrical ) between two flat die , and reducing its high by
compressing it , an operation that is also known as upsetting . (similar to compression test ).

Deformation operation in open-die forging reduce its high & increase diameter of work. (explain
why??)
- because in plastic deformation the volume of the cylinder remain constant , and any reduction
in the high is following by an increase in the diameter .

Open-die forging characterize by the fact that the metal  is never completely confined( ‫ال يتم‬
‫ )حصرها‬in the die .  while the impression confines(‫ )يح ّد‬the metal in the die .

Open-die forging produced on :-

1) Flat die .
2) Round swaging . select the method depending on :- A) design part configuration.
3) V-dies B) the size.

Open-die forging is often associated with large , simple-shaped part such as bar , blanks , rings.
Ultimate option in “custom-designed” metal component .

High strength , long life part are produce in size that range from few to hundred bound.
 If no friction occur between work and die surface  homogeneous deformation occur so that
radial flow is uniform throughout work part high .

(1) Start of process with workpiece

at its original length and diameter.

(2) partial compression

(3) final size

In cold open-die forging with friction  constrains lateral flow of work  result ( barreling
effect).
 Barreling is caused by  frictional forces at the die-workpiace interface that oppose the
outward flow of the material of the interfaces .
 frictional prevents the top and the bottom surface from expanding freely.

In hot open-die forging with friction  effect more pronounced due to heat transfer at die
surfaces which cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation .

The reason is that the material at and near the die-specimen interfaces cools rapidly, whereas
the rest of the specimen remains relatively hot  Since the strength of the material decreases
with increasing temperature, the upper and lower portions of the specimen show a greater
resistance to deformation than dose the center.

A result of barreling is that the deformation throughout the specimen becomes nonuniform or
inhomogeneous .

Mention The solution of the ( barreling effect) in cold and hot forging ??
- in cold forging  by applying an effective lubricant.
- in hot forging  by using heated dies or thermal barrier at the interface .
cylindrical work part in open-
die forging, showing
pronounced barreling:

(1) start of process,

(2) partial deformation, and

(3) final shape

Mention the operation use to perform the workpiece for close die forging ??
1) Fullering .  the material is distributed away from an area.  dies with convex (‫)محدب‬
surface cavity are used.
2) Edging .  it is gathered into a localized area.  Similar to Fullering, but the dies have
concave surface cavity.
3) Cogging .  Open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces to reduce cross-section and
to increase length.

Mention the advantages of the open-die forging ??

1) Simple
2) inexpensive die .
3) Wide range of size available .
4) Good strength characteristic .

Mention the limitation (disadvantages) of the open-die forging ??

1) Limited to simple shape .
2) Difficult to hold .
3) Close tolerance .
4) Required further machining .
5) Low production rate .
6) Poor utilization of material .
7) High degree of skill required .

In impression-die forging  the workpiece acquires (‫)يكتسب‬the shape of die cavity (close die).
 formation of a flash or excess material , that has to be trimmed off.

(‫ )مهم‬the formation of flash is important part of impression die forging . (explain Why) ??
 because flash provides away for excess material from the work stock to exit the forging
die(‫ )بتوفر الفالش طريقة لهروب المادة الزائدة من القالب‬, and if this material could not escape
(‫ )اذا لم تستطيع الهروب‬during the compression the build up of pressure )‫(رح تتجمع الضغوط‬as the
volume of work metal exceeded the volume of the die cavity then crack the die
)‫(وحجم المادة اكبر من سعة القالب ف رح ينكسر القالب‬.

Flash is an important function during compression . explain how ??

1) if the ratio of its high to thickness the flash is subjected to high pressure , since the high
friction the material in cavity will subjected to high pressure .. so its help to filling the die cavity.
2) if the forging operation is carried out at elevated temperature (hot forging), the flash cools faster
than dose the bulk of the workpiece [ (explain why ??)  because of the high surface area-to-thickness
ratio of the flash gap ]  the result , the flash resists more than the bulk and this help to filling the die.
Force in impression die forging can be difficult to predict . ( explain Why ??)
 because
1. Complex shape involved .
2. Each location in the wprkpiece is subjected to difficult strain , strain rate and temp.
3. Variation in the coefficient of friction along the die-workpiece contact length .

The forces are largest at the end of the process when friction between the projected area of
the blank and the work part is largest, in order to transform the starting work part into a final
desired geometry.
In impression-die forging , machining is needed to produce the fine tolerance needed .

Explain the figure ??

 the force increase gradually as the cavity is filled
and then increases rapidly when form of flash , as the
die close further (to shape the part) , steeper risr in
forging load takes place .

What is mean of land in impression die forging ?

 ensure that the flash generates sufficient resistance of the outward flow of the material to aid
( ‫ ) يساعد‬in die filling with an even steeper rise in forging load .

Mention the Advantages of impression die forging ?

a. High production rate.
b. Less waste of the metal .
c. Greater strength .
d. Favorable grain orientation .
Type the limitation of impression die forging ?
1) Not capable foe close tolerance .
2) Machining is often required .
Type the benefits of the close die forging process ?
1) 3-D shape.
2) High strength .
3) Soundness .
4) Enhanced density .
5) Production of intricate and difficult geometers .
6) The flash is form and workpiece completely filling  forging pressure is very high .
 Flashless forging  no flash is formed and work part is completely surrounded by the dies
 net shape forming reduce the need for later finishing .
proper control of volume of material…
 undersized :- will prevent the complete filling of the die cavity .
 oversized :- premature die failure or jamming of the die .

Requires in Flashless forging :-

- special and more complex dies .
- precise (‫ )دقة‬control of blank volume .
Aluminum and manganese are best for precision forging . (explain why ??)
 because they are require lower forging load and temp.

Drop hammers can be classified as gravity drop hammers and power drop hammers.

Gravity drop hammers  achieve their energy by the falling weight of a heavy ram The force
of the blow is determined by the height of the drop and the weight of the ram.
Power drop hammers  accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam.
One of the disadvantages of drop hammers is :-
1) that a large amount of the impact energy is transmitted (‫ )تنتقل‬through the anvil (‫ )سندان‬into
the floor of the building .
2) commonly used for impression die forging.

Forging Presses apply gradual pressure, to accomplish the forging operation.

Forging presses include (Types):- mechanical presses , hydraulic presses , and screw presses.

Heading  this is basically an upsetting operation , typically performed at the end of

rod to produce shape larger cross section .

Type the disadvantages of Heading ?

- there are tendency for the part to buckle IF its length –to-diameter ratio is too high.

the operation done at machines called headers .

name and explain the operation show

in the fig.
 heading and upsetting forging.
1) wire stock is fed to the stop
2) gripping dies close on the stock
and the stop is retracted
3) punch moves forward
4) Punching more to form the head
 Swaging  use to reduce the cross-section of the forged rods or tubes using a set of
rotating dies. (sometimes required to mandrel to control shape and size of internal diameter of
tubular parts ).  mandrel has fixed profile , for example  hexagonal in the bulk and circular in
the outer .

Roll forging Roll forging is a deformation process used to reduce the cross section
of a cylindrical (or rectangular) workpiece by passing it through a set of opposing rolls that have
grooves matching the desired shape of the final part.
Uses :-
1) produce parts that are basically the
final product such that tapered shafts.
2) used as a preliminary forming operation
such as in making various automotive components

Skew rolling-Forging uses for making ball bearings .

 the ball then ground and polished special machinery .

(a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process.

(b) Production of steel balls by upsetting a cylindrical blank  Note the formation of flash
The balls made by these processes are subsequently ground and polished for use in ball
bearings .

Trimming  cutting operation use to remove flash from work part in impression-die
forging (done while work is still hot , and also done by grinding or sawing ).

Forgeability  it is capability to be shaped without cracking and requiring low

force & min temp. (its increase with increase temp) ( presence of imparities decreases the
ductility and decrease the forgability)
the two popular tests for determining the forgeability (‫??)كيف يتم حسابها‬
in cold  the “ upset test ”.
in hot  the “ twist test ” .

Upsetting test  In this test, a solid cylindrical specimen is upset between two flat dies  the
higher the reduction prior to cracking  the greater forgeability of the metal .
 when increase friction , lower reduction ..so lower the forgeability .

Twist test  ( torsion test )  performed at various temp & the # of turns that each spacemen
undergoes before failure . 
.‫ كويسه عند درجة الحرارة هاي‬stilbsergrsf ‫ عند درجة حرارة معينة اذا ال‬ssrfs ‫كل ما زادت ال‬
In general
1. Aluminum, magnesium, copper and their alloys; carbon and low-alloy steels have good
foregability.
2. High-temperature materials such as superalloys, tantalum, molybdenum, and tungsten and
their alloys have poor forgeability.

Thin portions of metal forging called ribs and webs .

 rib the portion are perpendicular to the forging plane .
 web  the portion are parallel to the forging plane .
 web thickness should not be too small (explain why ??) ; because it may be trouble
completely filling the web with metal .

Type the forging defect ?

1) Surface cracking .
2) Laps formed by web buckling during forging .
3) Internal crack cased by oversized billet .

The surface cracking in forging caused by what ??

 caused by the material flow patterns in the die cavity .

Explain how we can avoid the laps formed problem ??

 the laps formed by web buckling during forging , and we can avoid this problem by increase
thickness .

If the web is too thick , the excess material flows past the already forged portions and develops
internal cracks .

And we have defect result from die radii , The material flows better around a large corner sides
that it does around small radius .
 the flow of the material will have change directions depending the part geometry .
 if smooth , large filleted turns will allow the metal flow to change direction while adhering
) ‫ (مع االلتزام‬to the die’s geometry .
 if corner within the metal forging are too shape may not completely follow the path of these
corner  resulting laps or called  cold shunts .
Cold shunts ( laps) (vacancies ) ( small crack) produce by what ??
1) Sharp corner . . ‫زاوية حادة‬
2) When material flows of different temp meet .

It is important to inspect the forging part prior the being into service in forging . (explain why ??)
 to reduce fatigue failure and other problem during service life of the forging component .

Explain how can controlled of the defects in part manufacturing by forging ??

1) By careful consideration of work stock volume  to avoid crack .
2) By good design of the forging die  to avoid sharp corner .

What is mean of (explain) end grain ??

 when the grain flow reaches a surface perpendicularly , exposing the grain boundaries directly
environment .

End grains can be avoided by two mean , write them ??

1) By proper selection of plank orientation in the die cavity . (‫)بعمله بشكل افقي‬
2) By control of material flow during forging .

Mention the reason of defect ?? (‫)نفسهم مذكورين في اخر صفحه بالتلخيص‬

1) Insufficient volume of material to fill the die cavity completely .  laps will be developed.
2) Improper design of the die .
3) If the web is too thick  internal crack will developed.
4) Temp gradients throughout the work piece.

Write the steps of forging design ??

Step 1 :- a redistribution of the material .
Step 2 :- then the more detailed impression die forging . (‫)تشكيل المادة‬
Step 3 :- finishing operation .
Fullering and edging use to accomplish a rough transfer of material .( in open die forging)
 will squeeze more metal in to some areas of the work . while causing other areas to have less
depending on the needs of the process .

The design of forging dies and die material selection require knowledge of what ??
1) The strength and ductility of the workpievce material .
2) Workpiece material sensitivity to strain rate and temp.
3) Its frictional characteristics.
4) Forging temp.

The terminology used in die design is ??

1) The bar first is performed ( intermediate shape) by techniques such as fullering and edging .
2) Forging into the final shape .
3) Finally the forged part is trimmed .

Explain why performed the intermediate for the bar ??

 the reason for performing is recognizing that for long die life wear is to be minimized .

Some general rules die design include what ??

1) The parting line .
2) The flash .
3) Draft angle .
4) Die radii .

What is mean of parting line ??

 the straight line @ the center of the forging .

The selection of the proper location for the parting line based on what ??
1) The shape of the part .
2) Flow of the material .
3) Balance of the forces .
4) The flash .

The flash: the flash is allowed to flow into gutter.

A general guideline for flash clearance (between the dies)
 is 3% of the maximum thickness of forging .
The length of the land is usually five times that of the flash
clearance .
Draft angle is necessary to include in the forging die design in order to allow the removal of the
work from the die after the part has been forged.
The larger the draft angle, the better it will facilitate the metal forging's removal.
Draft angles usually range between 0.052 and 0.174 rad .
Because the forging shrinks in its radial direction as it cools, internal draft angles are made larger
than external ones.
Internal angle  0.1222 to 0.1745 rad
External angle  0.052 to 0.087 rad

Small radii are generally not desirable because of their adverse effect on metal flow and their
tendency to wear rapidly from stress concentration and thermal cycling.
Because most forgings , particularly large ones , are performed at elevate temp , die material
must have What ??
1) High Strength toughness and hardness .
2) Hardenbility and ability to harden uniformly .
3) Resistance to mechanical and thermal stock .
4) Resistance to wear .

Selection of die materials depend on what ??

1) The property of workpiece .
2) Complexity of workpiece shape .
3) Forging temp.
4) Cost of die material .
5) The number of forging required .
6) Heat transfer characteristics of die material .

Die failure result from what ??

1) Improper design .
2) Defective material .
3) Improper heat treatment & finish operation .
4) Over heating  caused cracking .
5) Overloading  excessive wear .

Mention the advantages of forging ??

1) Directional strength  forging produces predictable uniform grain size and flow
characteristics .
2) Structural strength  provides a degree of structural integrity  refine the structure 
and remove defect  eliminates internal voids .
3) Impact strength  proper orientation of grain flow assures (‫ )يضمن‬maximum impact strength
and fatigue resistance .
4) It Result in considerable saving in time . 5) it has good reliability .
6) The forging part can be easily welded .
Mention the disadvantages of forging ??
1) Rapid oxidation in forging at high temp.  results in scaling which wear the dies.
2) The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to maintain.
3) Some materials are not readily worked by forging.
4) The initial cost of forging dies is high .
5) The metal get cracked or distort if worked below a specified temp limit .