THE ILIAD AND THE ODYSSEY

“The Iliad” and “The Odyssey” are two epic poems attributed to the ancient Greek poet Homer. These

masterpieces of ancient literature have had a profound influence on Western literature and

storytelling. “The Iliad” revolves around the final year of the Trojan War, primarily focusing on the

conflict between the Greeks and the Trojans. The epic begins with the rage of Achilles, the greatest

warrior among the Greeks. When Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek forces, dishonors Achilles, he

withdraws from battle, causing the Greeks to suffer significant setbacks. Throughout the narrative, the

poem explores the tragic fate of the heroes, including Hector, the Trojan prince, and Patroclus,

Achilles’ closest companion. “The Iliad” also features the intervention of the gods, who take sides and

influence the outcomes of the war. Zeus, Apollo, Athena, and other deities play significant roles in the

story, often aiding their favored mortals or interfering with the opposing side. The poem delves into

themes such as honor, glory, the devastating effects of war, the complexities of human nature, and the

relationship between mortals and gods.

The epic concludes with the death of Hector and the mourning of the Trojans. Achilles,

driven by his thirst for revenge, challenges Hector’s killer, Paris, to a duel, ultimately leading to the fall

of Troy. The Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector, symbolizing the consequences and sorrows of war.

“The Odyssey,” on the other hand, follows the adventures of Odysseus, the Greek hero and king of

Ithaca, as he strives to return home after the Trojan War. The epic poem is divided into 24 books and

covers a period of ten years, encompassing both Odysseus’ trials at sea and the challenges faced by his

family back in Ithaca.

“The Odyssey” begins with an invocation to the Muse, who is asked to inspire the poet to recount the

story of Odysseus. The narrative then shifts to Ithaca, where Odysseus’ wife, Penelope, and son,

Telemachus, face a predicament. Odysseus has been absent for twenty years, and a group of suitors
has gathered in his palace, hoping to marry Penelope and claim the throne. Telemachus, now a young

man, decides to embark on a journey to find news of his father. Meanwhile, the story switches to

Odysseus, who is trapped on the island of Ogygia, where the nymph Calypso has held him captive for

seven years. The gods intervene, and Hermes, the messenger of the gods, is sent to order Calypso to

release Odysseus. Calypso reluctantly complies, and Odysseus builds a raft to set sail. However,

Poseidon, the god of the sea, enraged at Odysseus for blinding his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus,

unleashes a storm that wrecks the raft. Odysseus manages to survive and swims to the island of

Scheria. In Scheria, the Phaeacians, a hospitable and seafaring people, receive Odysseus. He tells them

his story, recounting his adventures since leaving Troy. He begins with the tale of his encounters with

the Cicones, the Lotus-Eaters, and the Cyclops Polyphemus. Odysseus describes how he blinded

Polyphemus to escape his clutches, earning the wrath of Poseidon. The Phaeacians are impressed by

his story and offer him a ship to return to Ithaca.

The narrative then takes a temporary departure from Odysseus to focus on events in Ithaca.

Telemachus, guided by the goddess Athena in disguise, travels to Pylos and Sparta to seek news of his

father. He meets Nestor and Menelaus, both heroes of the Trojan War, who provide him with valuable

information and guidance. Telemachus gains confidence and learns about the suitors’ treachery,

returning to Ithaca determined to confront them.

THE DIVINE COMEDY

In Inferno, Dante, along with his first guide, the Roman poet Virgil, makes his way through the realm
of eternal punishment. Within each part of The Divine Comedy, Dante explains that the three realms
of Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso are themselves divided into smaller sections, each with different
types of people who are there based on their actions in life. In Dante's Inferno, Hell is divided into
circles, each containing increasingly worse sinners and punishments. These punishments are referred
to as contrapasso in the text, where the torture of a particular sin either resembles or contrasts with
the sin itself. Dante and Virgil descend and explore, before finally reaching the final circle reserved for
the worst sin of all, treachery.
Summary of Dante’s Inferno

In Inferno, Dante is lost both figuratively and literally, wandering through a dark forest after the death

of his love, Beatrice. Dante explains that Beatrice was also his muse, or the inspiration for many of

his works. He then meets Virgil. Virgil explains to Dante that he has arrived to help Dante, on

Beatrice's orders, explore the afterlife and save his soul. They then make their way to the entrance of

Hell, which exists in the middle of Earth, and begin their descent. Hell is structured in an inverted

cone shape, with each descending circle smaller than the last and inhabited by increasingly more

depraved sinners. Right outside the gates, upon the shores of Hell, Dante encounters the souls of

those who neither accepted nor rejected God, but who are doomed to forever beg on the shores and

never know peace. It is after this first encounter that Dante enters Hell proper. The first circle of Hell

is Limbo, and it holds the souls of righteous pagans born before Christ; this includes historical figures

like Plato, Julius Caesar, and even Virgil himself. The remaining circles are reserved for those who

committed major sins, such as lust, gluttony, greed or wrath/sullenness in the first five circles. In each

circle, sinners suffer unique forms of punishment, or contrapasso. It is upon entering the Sixth Circle

of Hell, reserved for the heretics, that Dante finds himself in the infernal city of Dis, which contains

the final circles reserved for the worst sins. These final circles are themselves divided into smaller

sections. For example, the Seventh Circle for Violence is divided into three rings: violence against

others, violence against oneself (suicide), and violence against nature. The Eighth Circle is home to

frauds, including seducers, sorcerers, false prophets, and liars, with each receiving their own unique

form of punishment. Finally, Dante and Virgil reach the final circle, reserved for the treacherous. The

Ninth Circle is, once again, divided into smaller sections depending on the kind of treachery; this

includes betrayers of kin, country, guests, and of one's benefactors (which is considered the worst sin

of all). Unlike the other circles, the final circle of Hell is a massive frozen lake with souls in varying

levels of submergence in the ice. It is within the center of Hell that Dante comes face to face with the

fallen angel himself, Satan. Satan is submerged in the frozen lake, devouring the worst sinners, such

as Judas, the betrayer of Christ, and Cassius and Brutus, the betrayers of Julius Caesar. The story ends

with Dante and Virgil climbing out of Hell and emerging on the Island of Purgatorio.
BEOWULF

King Hrothgar of Denmark, a descendant of the great king Shield Sheafson, enjoys a prosperous and

successful reign. He builds a great mead-hall, called Heorot, where his warriors can gather to drink,

receive gifts from their lord, and listen to stories sung by the scops, or bards. But the jubilant noise

from Heorot angers Grendel, a horrible demon who lives in the swamplands of Hrothgar’s kingdom.

Grendel terrorizes the Danes every night, killing them and defeating their efforts to fight back. The

Danes suffer many years of fear, danger, and death at the hands of Grendel. Eventually, however, a

young Geatish warrior named Beowulf hears of Hrothgar’s plight. Inspired by the challenge, Beowulf

sails to Denmark with a small company of men, determined to defeat Grendel.

Hrothgar, who had once done a great favor for Beowulf’s father Ecgtheow, accepts Beowulf’s offer to

fight Grendel and holds a feast in the hero’s honor. During the feast, an envious Dane named Unferth

taunts Beowulf and accuses him of being unworthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds with a boastful

description of some of his past accomplishments. His confidence cheers the Danish warriors, and the

feast lasts merrily into the night. At last, however, Grendel arrives. Beowulf fights him unarmed,

proving himself stronger than the demon, who is terrified. As Grendel struggles to escape, Beowulf

tears the monster’s arm off. Mortally wounded, Grendel slinks back into the swamp to die. The

severed arm is hung high in the mead-hall as a trophy of victory.

Overjoyed, Hrothgar showers Beowulf with gifts and treasure at a feast in his honor. Songs are sung in

praise of Beowulf, and the celebration lasts late into the night. But another threat is approaching.

Grendel’s mother, a swamp-hag who lives in a desolate lake, comes to Heorot seeking revenge for her

son’s death. She murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s most trusted advisers, before slinking away. To

avenge Aeschere’s death, the company travels to the murky swamp, where Beowulf dives into the

water and fights Grendel’s mother in her underwater lair. He kills her with a sword forged for a giant,

then, finding Grendel’s corpse, decapitates it and brings the head as a prize to Hrothgar. The Danish

countryside is now purged of its treacherous monsters.

The Danes are again overjoyed, and Beowulf’s fame spreads across the kingdom. Beowulf departs after

a sorrowful goodbye to Hrothgar, who has treated him like a son. He returns to Geatland, where he

and his men are reunited with their king and queen, Hygelac and Hygd, to whom Beowulf recounts his

adventures in Denmark. Beowulf then hands over most of his treasure to Hygelac, who, in turn,

rewards him.
In time, Hygelac is killed in a war against the Shyflings, and, after Hygelac’s son dies, Beowulf ascends

to the throne of the Geats. He rules wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity to Geatland. When

Beowulf is an old man, however, a thief disturbs a barrow, or mound, where a great dragon lies

guarding a horde of treasure. Enraged, the dragon emerges from the barrow and begins unleashing

fiery destruction upon the Geats. Sensing his own death approaching, Beowulf goes to fight the

dragon. With the aid of Wiglaf, he succeeds in killing the beast, but at a heavy cost. The dragon bites

Beowulf in the neck, and its fiery venom kills him moments after their encounter. The Geats fear that

their enemies will attack them now that Beowulf is dead. According to Beowulf’s wishes, they burn

their departed king’s body on a huge funeral pyre and then bury him with a massive treasure in a

barrow overlooking the sea.

THE AENID

On the Mediterranean Sea, Aeneas and his fellow Trojans flee from their home city of Troy, which has

been destroyed by the Greeks. They sail for Italy, where Aeneas is destined to found Rome. As they

near their destination, a fierce storm throws them off course and lands them in Carthage. Dido,

Carthage’s founder and queen, welcomes them. Aeneas relates to Dido the long and painful story of

his group’s travels thus far.

Aeneas tells of the sack of Troy that ended the Trojan War after ten years of Greek siege. In the final

campaign, the Trojans were tricked when they accepted into their city walls a wooden horse that,

unbeknownst to them, harbored several Greek soldiers in its hollow belly. He tells how he escaped the

burning city with his father, Anchises; his son, Ascanius; and the hearth gods that represent their

fallen city. Assured by the gods that a glorious future awaited him in Italy, he set sail with a fleet

containing the surviving citizens of Troy. Aeneas relates the ordeals they faced on their journey. Twice

they attempted to build a new city, only to be driven away by bad omens and plagues. Harpies,

creatures that are part woman and part bird, cursed them, but they also encountered friendly

countrymen unexpectedly. Finally, after the loss of Anchises and a bout of terrible weather, they made

their way to Carthage.

Impressed by Aeneas’s exploits and sympathetic to his suffering, Dido, a Phoenician princess who fled

her home and founded Carthage after her brother murdered her husband, falls in love with Aeneas.

They live together as lovers for a period, until the gods remind Aeneas of his duty to found a new city.

He determines to set sail once again. Dido is devastated by his departure, and kills herself by ordering
a huge pyre to be built with Aeneas’s castaway possessions, climbing upon it, and stabbing herself with

the sword Aeneas leaves behind.

As the Trojans make for Italy, bad weather blows them to Sicily, where they hold funeral games for the

dead Anchises. The women, tired of the voyage, begin to burn the ships, but a downpour puts the fires

out. Some of the travel-weary stay behind, while Aeneas, reinvigorated after his father visits him in a

dream, takes the rest on toward Italy. Once there, Aeneas descends into the underworld, guided by the

Sibyl of Cumae, to visit his father. He is shown a pageant of the future history and heroes of Rome,

which helps him to understand the importance of his mission. Aeneas returns from the underworld,

and the Trojans continue up the coast to the region of Latium.

The arrival of the Trojans in Italy begins peacefully. King Latinus, the Italian ruler, extends his

hospitality, hoping that Aeneas will prove to be the foreigner whom, according to a prophecy, his

daughter Lavinia is supposed to marry. But Latinus’s wife, Amata, has other ideas. She means for

Lavinia to marry Turnus, a local suitor. Amata and Turnus cultivate enmity toward the newly arrived

Trojans. Meanwhile, Ascanius hunts a stag that was a pet of the local herdsmen. A fight breaks out,

and several people are killed. Turnus, riding this current of anger, begins a war.

Aeneas, at the suggestion of the river god Tiberinus, sails north up the Tiber to seek military support

among the neighboring tribes. During this voyage, his mother, Venus, descends to give him a new set

of weapons, wrought by Vulcan. While the Trojan leader is away, Turnus attacks. Aeneas returns to

find his countrymen embroiled in battle. Pallas, the son of Aeneas’s new ally Evander, is killed by

Turnus. Aeneas flies into a violent fury, and many more are slain by the day’s end.

The two sides agree to a truce so that they can bury the dead, and the Latin leaders discuss whether to

continue the battle. They decide to spare any further unnecessary carnage by proposing a

hand-to-hand duel between Aeneas and Turnus. When the two leaders face off, however, the other

men begin to quarrel, and full-scale battle resumes. Aeneas is wounded in the thigh, but eventually the

Trojans threaten the enemy city. Turnus rushes out to meet Aeneas, who wounds Turnus badly.

Aeneas nearly spares Turnus but, remembering the slain Pallas, slays him instead.
THE RAMAYANA by Valmiki

Born during an age when the demon Ravana terrorized the world,Ramais the virtuous, wise,

and powerful prince of Ayohya. As a young man, he is able to accomplish what no other man

has everdone: he lifts and strings the bow of Siva, and by so doing her earns the right to

marry the beautiful Sita. Just when he is about to ascend the throne of Ayodhya, his father

Dasaratha is forced to exile him for fourteen years to the forest due to a vow made long ago.

Unruffled, Rama accepts his exile; his wife Sita and his loyal brother Lakshmana accompany

him. In the forest, the princely brothers kill many demons and visit many wise men and

women. The evil demon Ravana hears of Sita's beauty, and kidnaps her. He has fallen in love

with her and tries to seduce her, but she rebuffs his advances for nearly ten months.

Desperate to win her back, Rama and Lakshmana form an alliance with the monkey king

Sugriva, and invade Lanka with an army of monkeys. After many violent battles, Rama

defeats Ravana and wins back Sita. He is concerned that she has been unfaithful during