Basics of computer

A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical
operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow
generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an
extremely wide range of tasks. A "complete" computer including the hardware, the operating system
(main software), and peripheral equipment required and used for "full" operation can be referred to as a
computer system. This term may as well be used for a group of computers that are connected and work
together, in particular a computer network or computer cluster.

Computers are used as control system for a wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This
includes simple special purpose devices like microwave oven and remote contols, factory devices such
as industrial robots and computer-aided design, and also general purpose devices like persnol computer
and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects hundreds of
millions of other computers and their users.

Characteristics of Computer

1. Speed: – As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we
take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000)
of instructions and even more per second.

Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or
nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer
performs work.

2. Accuracy: – The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with
the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7.

determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and
inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: – A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in
routine type of work.

4. Versatility: – It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare
electric bills.

5. Power of Remembering: – Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any
information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends
entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these
data.

6. No IQ: – Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It
performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to
do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

7. No Feeling: – It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not
get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

8. Storage: – The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can
also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer
and can be carried to other computers.

Basic Parts of Computer

Computer case

The computer case is the metal and plastic box that contains the main components of the computer,
including the motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), and power supply. The front of the case
usually has an On/Off button and one or more optical drives.
Computer cases come in different shapes and sizes. A desktop case lies flat on a desk, and the monitor
usually sits on top of it. A tower case is tall and sits next to the monitor or on the floor. All-in-one
computers come with the internal components built into the monitor, which eliminates the need for a
separate case.

Monitor

The monitor works with a video card, located inside the computer case, to display images and text on
the screen. Most monitors have control buttons that allow you to change your monitor's display
settings, and some monitors also have built-in speakers.

Newer monitors usually have LCD (liquid crystal display) or LED (light-emitting diode) displays. These can
be made very thin, and they are often called flat-panel displays. Older monitors use CRT (cathode ray
tube) displays. CRT monitors are much larger and heavier, and they take up more desk space.

Keyboard

The keyboard is one of the main ways to communicate with a computer. There are many different types
of keyboards, but most are very similar and allow you to accomplish the same basic tasks.

Mouse

The mouse is another important tool for communicating with computers. Commonly known as a
pointing device, it lets you point to objects on the screen, click on them, and move them.

There are two main mouse types: optical and mechanical. The optical mouse uses an electronic eye to
detect movement and is easier to clean. The mechanical mouse uses a rolling ball to detect movement
and requires regular cleaning to work properly.

Mouse alternatives

There are other devices that can do the same thing as a mouse. Many people find them easier to use,
and they also require less desk space than a traditional mouse. The most common mouse alternatives
are below.
Trackball: A trackball has a ball that can rotate freely. Instead of moving the device like a mouse, you can
roll the ball with your thumb to move the pointer.

Touchpad: A touchpad—also called a trackpad—is a touch-sensitive pad that lets you control the pointer
by making a drawing motion with your finger. Touchpads are common on laptop computers.

Advantages Of Computer

Computer has made a very vital impact on society. It has changed the way of life. The use of computer
technology has affected every field of life. People are using computers to perform different tasks quickly
and easily. The use of computers makes different task easier. It also saves time and effort and reduces
the overall cost to complete a particular task.

Many organizations are using computers for keeping the records of their customers. Banks are using
computers for maintaining accounts and managing financial transactions. The banks are also providing
the facility of online banking. The customers can check their account balance from using the internet.
They can also make financial transaction online. The transactions are handled easily and quickly with
computerized systems.

People are using computers for paying their bills, managing their home budgets or simply having some
break and watching a movie, listening to songs or playing computer games. Online services like skype or
social media websites are used for communication and information sharing purposes.

Computer can be used as a great educational tool. Students can have access to all sort of information on
the internet. Some great websites like Wikipedia, Khan’s Academy, Code Academy, Byte-Notes provides
free resources for students & professionals.

Disadvantages Of Computer

The use of computer has also created some problems in society which are as follows.

Unemployment

Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers. It reduces the need of people and
increases unemployment in society.
Wastage Of Time And Energy

Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play games and chat for a long period of
time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young generation is now spending more time on the social
media websites like Facebook, Twitter etc or texting their friends all night through smartphones which is
bad for both studies and their health. And it also has adverse effects on the social life.

Data Security

The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons through networks. It has
created serious problems for the data security.

Computer Crimes

People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card numbers of the people and
misuse them or they can steal important data from big organizations.

Privacy Violation

The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy of a person can be violated if
the personal and confidential records are not protected properly.

Health Risks

The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or disorders of hands, wrists,
elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the computer in proper position.
They must also take regular breaks while using the computer for longer period of time. It is
recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of computer usage.

Impact On Environment

The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are polluting the environment. The wasted
parts of computer can release dangerous toxic materials. Green computer is a method to reduce the
electricity consumed and environmental waste generated when using a computer. It includes recycling
and regulating manufacturing processes. The used computers must be donated or disposed off properly.
Functions of Operating System

An operating system has three main functions:

(1) manage the computer's resources, such as the central processing unit, memory, disk drives, and
printers.

(2) establish a user interface.

(3) execute and provide services for applications software.

Operating System supports the basic functions of the computer and is a low-level software. The
functions of operating systems are as described below:

i) I/O Management:

OS manages I/O devices and makes the I/O process effective. OS accepts the input from the input
device, stores it in the main memory, ask the CPU to process it and finally provides the result to the
output devices for output.

ii) Command Interpreter:

Command interpreter is one of the part of operating system which reads the commands that user types
in at a terminal, interprets them and translate them into a detailed set of instructions that the computer
hardware can understand. It varies widely from one OS to other OS. Every OS must provide command
interpreter for its operation.

iii) Memory Management:

Memory is the large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. When user requests CPU for
read/write operation, OS determines the amount of memory required for the program instructions and
data. Then, OS allocates required memory to load the program and data into RAM. When program
terminates its memory area is free and the same memory area is allocated for other programs.
iv) Process Management:

OS finds the status of processor and processes, chooses a job, chooses processer in the job, allocates the
processor to the process and frees the processor when the process is executed.

v) Time Sharing:

OS manages the time of CPU. The kernel OS checks frequency for other processes requesting CPU time.
Time-sharing checks for CPU request from higher priority processes that are made every 10 milliseconds.
When two or more processes at the same priority level are competing for the CPU time, CPU time is
sliced into segments, defined by time slice and passed from process to process in a round robin fashion,
preventing a single process from monopolizing the CPU until it blocks or terminates.

vi) Security:

OS makes sure that only authorized users get access to the computer and its data and the users only do
things they are authorized to do.

vii) Deadlock Prevention:

During processing, a situation can arise in which a resource shared by two or more processes cannot
continue because the resource required by one process is held by the other. This situation is called
deadlock. OS ensures that the above condition do not hold by carefully allocating resources.

viii) Interrupt Handling:

Interrupt is a signal generated from a device or program when they need attention of the CPU. OS
determines the type of interrupt and priority of the interrupt, stops the execution process of CPU,
preserves the initial state of the CPU, perform the requested operation and brings the CPU at the same
state when it was stopped.

ix) Virtual Storage:

If there are programs larger than main memory (RAM) of the computer, OS uses the reserved space in
the secondary memory which is termed as virtual memory. It makes the execution of larger program
(than RAM) possible but at the same times the operation becomes slower.
Features of Operating System (OS)

Here is a list important features of OS:

Protected and supervisor mode

Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers Networking Security

Program Execution

Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking

Handling I/O operations

Manipulation of the file system

Error Detection and handling

Resource allocation

Information and Resource Protection

Utility software

Utility software is software designed to help to analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. It is
used to support the computer infrastructure - in contrast to application software, which is aimed at
directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.

Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware,
operating system, software and data storage) operates. Utility software, along with operating system
software, is a type of system software, distinguishing it from application software.

Anti Virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive
utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some
archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.

Backup Software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either the entire disk
(e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).

Clipboard Managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system .

Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.

Data Compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file.

Data Synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target data storage
and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:

File Synchronizatiion utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may be used to create
redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry their digital music, photos and video
in their mobile devices.

Revision Control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more than one user attempts to
simultaneously modify the same file.

Debuggers are used to test and “debug” other programs, mainly to solve programming errors. Also
utilized for reverse engineering of software or systems.

Disk Checkers can scan operating hard drive.

Disk Cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable
amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.

Disk Compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the
capacity of the disk.

Disk Defregmenters can detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several locations on
the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.

Disk Partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system
which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.

Disk Space Analysers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder
(including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used space.

Disk Storage utilities

File Managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks, such as
deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data
sets.

Hex Editiors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual program.

Memory Testers check for memory failures.

Network Utilities analyze the computer’s network connectivity, configure network settings, check data
transfer or log events.

Package Managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a computer.
Registry Cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys that are no
longer in use.

Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by
blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use.
Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or security.

System Monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system.

System Profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached to the
computer.

System software

A system software is a specific type of software that manages a computing device. The system software
comprises the operating system, utility programmes, and device drivers. We will look at each of the
three parts.

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer
manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which
interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the
hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

Close to the system

Fast in speed

Difficult to design

Difficult to understand

Less interactive

Smaller in size

Difficult to manipulate

Generally written in low-level language

AN OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system is software that manages hardware, software and other applications on a
computing device. The operating system has different functions and tasks it carries out on a computing
device. In order to make these functions easy to understand, they are grouped into the following
categories:

Disk management: Used to manage the drives installed in a computer e.g. partition drives, format
drives, assign drive letters.

Hardware management: Managing the interaction between hardware and software, as well as the
different hardware devices.

Graphics User Interface (GUI) management: Provides and manages the user interface that interacts with
graphics and visual content on a computing device.

I/O management: Managing the signals received from an input device and sending the correct signals to
an output device.

Process management: Managing the applications and the resources used by applications (Apps) on a
computing device.

File management: Managing the storage of files and folders on your storage device.

Memory management: Managing the data stored on a computing device’s memory and once the
processing is complete, this function tends to free up some space.

Storage management: Processes used to improve the performance of data storage resources.

Types of operating systems

Up to now, you have been learning about and working with Microsoft Windows as an example of an
operating system. This particular type of operating system is commonly known as a stand-alone
operating system. In this unit, we will focus on the following three types of operating systems namely,
stand-alone, network and embedded operating systems.

THE STAND-ALONE OPERATING SYSTEM

These operating systems function entirely independently from a network on a computer or mobile
device. This ensures that the tasks of an operating system can be performed on the device.

THE NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

Network or server operating systems are operating systems designed to help computers work together
on a network, rather than used in a stand-alone mode. For example, a large company may have a server
running the Windows Server operating system in the organisation. A computer can connect to the same
network to gain access to its information, resources, etc. Examples include: Windows Server, Red Hat
Enterprise, Ubuntu Server, and UNIX.

THE EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEM

The embedded operating system is designed for a specific purpose e.g. Smart TVs that connect to the
internet, a video camera (Wi-Fi) that can stream live footage and the GPS system that is installed in most
mobile devices.

Compiler

A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular programming language
and turns them into machine language or "code" that a computer's processor uses. Typically, a
programmer writes language statements in a language such as Pascal or C one line at a time using an
editor.

Interpreter

In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that directly executes instructions written in
a programming or scripting language, without requiring them previously to have been compiled into a
machine language program.
Assembler

An assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code. It takes the basic
commands and operations from assembly code and converts them into binary code that can be
recognized by a specific type of processor. Assemblers are similar to compilers in that they produce
executable code.

Difference Between Compiler Interpreter and Assembler

Functionality

Compiler converts the whole high level language program to machine language at a time. Interpreter
converts the high level language program to machine language line by line. In contrast, assembler
converts assembly language program to machine language.

Language

Languages such as C, C++ use compilers to convert the code. Languages such as Ruby, Perl, Python, PHP
uses an interpreter and assembly language uses an assembler.

Conclusion

Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler are language translators. The difference between compiler
interpreter and assembler is that compiler converts whole high level language programs to machine
language at a time while interpreter converts high level language programs to machine language line by
line and assembler converts assembly language programs to machine language.

Classification of Computers

The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:

1. On the basis of size.

2. On the basis of functionality.

3. On the basis of data handling.

According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose. General purpose
computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs,
but lack in speed and efficiency. Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem
or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine.

Type of computers on the basis of Functionality & Data Handling:

Analog Computer

An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous
physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved.

Digital Computer

A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system.

Hybrid computer

Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital computers. The
digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical and numerical operations, while
the analog component often serves as a solver of differential equations and other mathematically
complex equations.

Type of computers on the basis of Size:

Super Computer

The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed
for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example,
weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated
graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its
power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute
many programs concurrently.

Mainframe Computer

A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at
the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In
some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more
simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.

Mini Computer

A mid sized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes. In
the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred,
however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users
simultaneously.

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.

• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no

keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output devices.

Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for a
user’s machine (client machine) in contrast to a “server” or “mainframe.”

Office Tools

Office Tools include some Application Software that are used to create, update, manage documents,
handle large data, create presentations etc. These tools if used effectively, can save a large amount of
time and effort. Lots of repetitive tasks can be done very easily. In this article, we will discuss the
following concepts:

Word Processor

Presentation Tool

Spreadsheet Package

Database Management System

1. Word Processor

Word Processor is a software that is used to manage text documents. User can create, update and
formatting text files using word processor. It makes text document related work faster an easier. A word
processor is an essential part of any office suite. A word processor usually runs on local machine as a
desktop application like Microsoft word but nowadays cloud based Word Processors like Google docs
are also used which makes it easier for teams to manage their documents on cloud.

Examples of some word processors are:

MS-Word: Retail Cross-Platform word processor

WordPad: Retail windows only word processor

WordPerfect: Retail Cross-Platform word processor

Google Docs: Freeware Cloud Based word processor

LibreOffice Writer: Open Source word processor

Characteristics of word processor:

Create, save and edit text documents.

Includes text formatting like font size, alignment, font color, background color, etc.

Checks spelling.

Allows adding images, screenshots etc to document.

Allows adding header and footer, set page margins and insert watermarks to your document.

2. Presentation Tool

A Presentation Tool is a software package used to display data and information in the form of a slide
show. The information is broken into small pieces called slides. It has three major parts: editor that
allows formatting and editing of text, method used for inserting and manipulating graphic images,
screenshots etc, slide-show system to display the content in form of a slide show.

The Slides together are stacked up to make an idea presentable to audience to make up presentation.

Examples of some presentation tool are:

MS-PowerPoint: Retail Cross-Platform presentation tool

Lotus Freelance: proprietary software presentation tool

Google Slides: Freeware Cloud Based presentation tool

LibreOffice Impress: Open Source presentation tool

3. Spreadsheet Package

Spreadsheet Package is a software that allows users to store, process and modify data in a tabular form
easily. It is an accounting tool to manage tabular data. In a Spreadsheet data is always stored in cells. A
cell is intersection of rows and columns. functions and formulas can be used easily on cell and data can
be processed using a spreadsheet tool.

Examples of some spreadsheet software are:

MS-Excel: Retail Cross-Platform spreadsheet package

Google Sheets: Freeware Cloud Based spreadsheet package

LibreOffice Calc: Open Source spreadsheet package

Characteristics of spreadsheet package:

User can handle simple calculations like addition, subtraction, average, counting, etc, very easily.

User can Prepare charts and graphs on a group of data easily.

Data formatting is efficient and effective.

Cell formatting is easy.

Logical Calculations can be done.

4. Database Management System

Database Management System is a software that manages data by storing them in tables to make up a
database. A database is an organised collection of data accessed on a machine. A Database
Management System interacts with data, users and application. User can store, read, update and can
delete data based on his/her needs. A good DBMS provides a set of utilities to administrator to manage
the data effectively.

Examples of some Database Management System are:

MySQL

PostgreSQL

Oracle Database

Microsoft Access.

Characteristics of Database Management System:

Data storing, reading and updating.

User accessibility.

Recovering damaged data facilities.

Authorization of administrator and data access.

Defining constraints for dataset.

Software Concepts

A Computer is an electronic device that can perform various operations of computation at a greater
speed than what an ordinary machine or human mind can do. It is driven by many entities including the
physical and tangible components that we can touch or feel, called the Hardware and programs and
commands that drive the hardware, called the Software.

The Software refers to the set of instructions fed in form of programs to govern the computer system
and process the hardware components. For example:

The antivirus that we use to protect our computer system is a type of Software.

The media players that we use to play multimedia files such as movies, music etc. are Software.

The Microsoft Office we use to edit the documents is a Software.

Depending on its use and area of implementation, Softwares can be divided into 3 major types:

System Software

Application Software

Utility Software

System Software

These are the software that directly allows the user to interact with the hardware components of a
computer system. As the humans and machines follow different languages, there has to be an interface
that will allow the users to interact with the core system, this interface is provided by the software. The
system software can be called the main or the alpha software of a computer system as it handles the
major portion of running a hardware. This System Software can be further divided into four major types:

The Operating System – It is the main program that governs and maintains the inter-cooperation of the
components of a computer system. For eg., Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS etc.
The Language Processor – The hardware components present in the computer system does not
understand human language. There are three types of languages involved in the world of human-
machine interaction:

Machine-Level Language: The machines only understand the digital signals or the binary codes or the
binary language which consist of strings of 0’s and 1’s. These are totally machine dependent language.

Assembly-Level Language: These are the Low-Level Language(LLL), that forms a correspondence
between machine level instruction and general assembly level statements. Assembly language uses a
mnemonics to represent each low-level machine instruction or operation-code also called the op-codes.
For eg., ADD instruction is used to add two entities, the HALT instruction is used to stop a process etc. It
is a machine dependent language and varies from processor to processor.

High-Level Language: These are the simple English statements, that humans use to program and code as
it is easy to read and understand to the human world. For eg., Java, C, C++, Python etc.

The machine level language is very complex to understand and code, therefore the users prefer the
High-Level Language or the HLL for coding. These codes need to be converted into the machine language
so that the computer can easily understand and work accordingly. This operation is performed by the
Language Processor which is made up of further three components:

Assembler: This language processor is used to convert the assembly language into machine level
language.

Compiler: This language processor is used to convert High-Level Language into machine level language in
one go, thus execution time is fast. The error detection is difficult in a compiler. Programming Languages
like C, C++ and Scala use compiler.

Interpreter: This language processor is also used to convert High-Level Language into machine level
language line-by-line, thus execution time is slow. Error-detection is easier in an interpreter as it reports
as soon as a bug is caught and restarts the process. This consumes unnecessary memory. Programming
Languages like Python, Ruby and Java uses an interpreter.

The Device Drivers – The device drivers and the device programs or the system software that acts as an
interface between the various Input-Output device and the users or the operating system. For eg., the
Printers, Web cameras come with a driver disk that is needed to be installed into the system to make
the device run in the system.
The BIOS – It stands for Basic Input Output System and is a small firmware, that controls the peripheral
or the input-output devices attached to the system. This software is also responsible for starting the OS
or initiating the booting process.

Application Software

These are the basic software used to run to accomplish a particular action and task. These are the
dedicated software, dedicated to performing simple and single tasks. For eg., a single software cannot
serve to both the reservation system and banking system. These are divided into two types:

The General Purpose Application Software: These are the types of application software that comes in-
built and ready to use, manufactured by some company or someone. For eg.,

Microsoft Excel – Used to prepare excel sheets.

VLC Media Player – Used to play audio/video files.

Adobe Photoshop – Used for designing and animation and many more.

The Specific Purpose Application Software: These are the type of software that is customizable and
mostly used in real-time or business environment. For eg.,

Ticket Reservation System

Healthcare Management System

Hotel Management System

Payroll Management System

Utility Software

These are the most basic type of software which provides high utility to the user and the system. These
perform the basic but daily need tasks. For eg.,

Antivirus Softwares: These provide protection to the computer system from unwanted malware and
viruses. For eg., QuickHeal, McAfee etc.

Disk Defragmenter Tools: These help the users to analyse the bad sectors of the disk and rearrange the
files in a proper order.

Text-editors: These help the users to take regular notes and create basic text files. For eg., Notepad,
Gedit etc.
Device Drivers

A device driver is a small piece of software that tells the operating system and other software how to
communicate with a piece of hardware.

For example, printer drivers tell the operating system, and by extension whatever program you have the
thing you want to print open in, exactly how to print information on the page

sound card drivers are necessary so your operating system knows exactly how to translate the 1s and 0s
that comprise that MP3 File into audio signals that the sound card can output to your headphones or
speakers.

The same general idea applies to video cards, keyboards, monitors, mice, disc drivers, etc.

Keep reading for more on why drivers are important, including some more examples, as well as
information on how to keep your drivers updated and what to do if they're not working properly.

Working of Device Driver:

Device Drivers depend upon the Operating System’s instruction to access the device and performing any
particular action. After the action they also shows their reactions by delivering output or status/message
from hardware device to the Operating system.For Example a printer driver tells the printer in which
format to print after getting instruction from OS, similarly A sound card driver is there due to which 1’s
and 0’s data of MP3 file is converted to audio signals and you enjoy the music. Card reader, controller,
modem, network card, sound card, printer, video card, USB devices, RAM, Speakers etc need Device
Drivers to operate.

Primary Memory

Primary memory is computer memory that is accessed directly by the CPU.RAM, or random access
memory, consists of one or more memory modules that temporarily store data while a computer is
running.

Primary memory is also known as Main memory or Internal memory.

RAM is volatile memory, meaning it is erased when the power is turned off.

Characteristic of Primary Memory

The computer can't run without primary memory

It is known as the main memory.

You can lose data in case power is switched off

It is also known as volatile memory

It is a working memory of the computer.

Primary memory is faster compares to secondary memory.

Two Types of Primary Memory are:

RAM

ROM

RAM

The full form of RAM is Random Access Memory. The information stored in this type of memory is lost
when the power supply to the PC or laptop is switched off. The information stored in RAM can be
checked with the help of BIOS. It is generally known as the main memory or temporary memory or
cache memory or volatile memory of the computer system.

Two main types of RAM are:

Static RAM

Dynamic RAM

Static RAM

Static RAM is the full form of SRAM. In this type of RAM, data is stored using the state of a six transistor
memory cell. Static RAM is mostly used as a cache memory for the processor (CPU).
Dynamic RAM

DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is a type of RAM which allows you to stores each
bit of data in a separate capacitor within a specific integrated circuit. Dynamic RAM is a standard
computer memory of the many modern desktop computers.

This type of RAM is a volatile memory that needs to be refreshed with voltage regularly. Else it loses the
information stored on it.

Uses of RAM

Here, are important uses of RAM:

RAM is utilized in the computer as a scratchpad, buffer, and main memory.

It offers a fast operating speed.

It is also popular for its compatibility

It offers low power dissipation

ROM

ROM (read only memory) is a flash memory chip that contains a small amount of non-volatile memory.
Non-volatile means that its contents cannot be changed and it retains its memory after the computer is
turned off.

Types of ROM

PROM: Programmable ROM, or PROM, is essentially a blank version of ROM that you can purchase and
program once with the help of a special tool called a programmer. A blank PROM chip allows current to
run through all possible pathways; the programmer chooses a pathway for the current by sending a high
voltage through the unwanted fuses to “burn” them out. Static electricity can create the same effect by
accident, so PROMs are more vulnerable to damage than conventional ROMs.

EPROM: Erasable Programmable ROM chips allow you to write and rewrite them many times. These
chips feature a quartz window through which a specialized EPROM programmer emits a specific
frequency of ultraviolet light. This light burns out all the tiny charges in the EPROM to reopen its circuits.
This exposure effectively renders the chip blank again, after which you can reprogram it according to the
same process as a PROM. EPROM chips will eventually wear out, but they frequently have lifetimes of
over 1000 erasures.

EEPROM: To modify an Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM chip, apply localized electrical fields to
erase and rewrite the data. EEPROMs have several advantages over other types of ROM. Unlike the
earlier forms, you can rewrite EEPROM without dedicated equipment, without removing it from the
hardware, and in specifically designated increments. You don’t have to erase and rewrite everything to
make a single edit.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU. It
holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU
when needed. Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory.

Register

A processor register is a quickly accessible location available to a computer's processor. Registers usually
consist of a small amount of fast storage, although some registers have specific hardware functions, and
may be read-only or write-only.
Secondary Memory

All secondary storage devices which are capable of storing high volume data is referred to secondary
memory. It's slower than primary memory. However, it can save a substantial amount of data, in the
range of gigabytes to terabytes. This memory is also called backup storage or mass storage media.

Types of Secondary memory

Mass storage devices:

The magnetic disk provides cheap storage and is used for both small and large computer systems.

Two types of magnetic disks are:

Floppy disks

Hard disks

Flash/SSD

Solid State Drive provides a persistent flash memory. It's very fast compared to Hard Drives. Frequently
found in Mobile phones, its rapidly being adopted in PC/Laptop/Mac.

Optical drives:

This secondary storage device is from which data is read and written with the help of lasers. Optical
disks can hold data up to 185TB.

Examples

CD

DVD

Blue Ray

USB drives:
It is one of the most popular types of secondary storage device available in the market. USB drives are
removable, rewritable and are physically very small. The capacity of USB drives is also increasing
significantly as today 1TB pen drive is also available in the market.

Magnetic tape:

It is a serial access storage device which allows us to store a very high volume of data. Usually used for
backups.

Characteristic Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories

Secondary memory is known as a backup memory

It is a non-volatile type of memory

Data is stored permanently even when the power of the computer is switched off

It helps store data in a computer

The machine can run without secondary memory

Slower than primary memory

Domain Specific Tools

Depending upon of its usages, the software may be classified as generic or specific. Generic software is a
software that can perform multiple tasks in a different environment without being modified like a word
processor software that can be used by anyone to make different types of documents as a report,
whitepaper, training material, etc. Specific software is software for a particular application, like railway
reservation system, weather forecasting, etc.

Some Domain Specific Tools :

School Management System : School management system handles various activities and processes of a
school to facilitate campus management like examination, attendance, admission, student’s fees,
timetable, teacher’s training, etc. It provides a healthy interaction among teachers, students, parents.
Inventory Management : Managing multiple tasks like purchase, sales, order, delivery, stock
maintenance, etc. associated with raw or processed goods in any business is called inventory
management. The inventory management software ensures that stocks are never below specified limits
and purchase/deliveries are done in time. Inventory management system is very useful for forecasting,
utilizing economies of scale and timing.

Payroll Management System : Payroll management system deals with the financial aspects of the
employee’s salary, taking care of leaves, bonus, loans, etc. Some advantages of using this kind of
management system are managed employee information efficiently, generate pay-slip at the
convenience of a mouse click, manages its own security. Payroll software is generally a component of HR
(Human Resource) management software in big organizations.

Financial Accounting : Financial management software keeps an electronic record of all financial
transactions of the organization. Objectives of financial accounting

Record financial transactions as and when they occur so that the data can be analyzed for preparing a
financial statement.

Calculate profit or loss, to enable management to take course-correction strategies if required.

Ascertain the financial strength of the company by determining its assets and liabilities.

Communicate the information to stakeholders through statements and reports, so that these
stakeholders can take appropriate decisions on their investments in the business.

Hotel Management :Hotel management software helps hotel managers to keep track of inventory levels,
daily orders, customer management, employee scheduling, table booking, etc.

Reservation System :A reservation system is a software that handles multiple modules like train routes,
train management, seat booking, meal booking, train maintenance, train status, travel package, etc.
Weather Forecasting System : Weather forecasting system is a real-time software that predicts the
weather of a place by collecting live data about atmospheric temperature, humidity, wind level, etc. It is
used to predict major disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, etc.

Ports

It the connection point acts as interface between the computer and the external devices like: printer,
modem, etc.

There are two types of ports :

1. Internal Port –

It connects the system’s motherboard to internal devices like hard-disk, CD drive, internal Bluetooth etc.

2. External Port –

It connects the system’s motherboard to internal devices like mouse, printer, USB etc.

Some important types of ports are as per follows :

1. Serial Port :

Used for external modems and older computer mouse

Two versions-9pin,25pin

Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

2. Parallel Port :
Used for scanners and printers

25 pin model

3. Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port :

It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse,
keyboard, etc.

Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.

4. Firewire Port :

Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.

Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.

5. Ethernet Port :

Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network bandwidth.

Microprocessor

The microprocessor is the central unit of a computer system that performs arithmetic and logic
operations, which generally include adding, subtracting, transferring numbers from one area to another,
and comparing two numbers. It's often known simply as a processor, a central processing unit, or as a
logic chip. It's essentially the engine or the brain of the computer that goes into motion when the
computer is switched on. It's a programmable, multipurpose device that incorporates the functions of a
CPU (central processing unit) on a single IC (integrated circuit).

Working

A microprocessor accepts binary data as input, processes that data, and then provides output based on
the instructions stored in the memory. The data is processed using the microprocessor's ALU
(arithmetical and logical unit), control unit, and a register array. The register array processes the data via
a number of registers that act as temporary fast access memory locations. The flow of instructions and
data through the system is managed by the control unit.

Benefits of a Microprocessor

But computer systems aren't the only devices that use microprocessors. Everything from smartphones
to household appliances to cars use microprocessors these days. Here are a few reasons why
microprocessors are so widely used:

They don't cost a lot - Due to their use of IC technology, microprocessors don't cost much to produce.
This means that the use of microprocessors can greatly reduce the cost of the system it's used in.

They are fast - The technology used to produce modern microprocessors has allowed them to operate at
incredibly high speeds--today's microprocessors can execute millions of instructions per second.

They consume little power - Power consumption is much lower than other types of processors since
microprocessors are manufactured using metal oxide semiconductor technology. This makes devices
equipped with microprocessors much more energy efficient.

They are portable - Due to how small microprocessors are and that they don't consume a lot of power,
devices using microprocessors can be designed to be portable (like smartphones).

They are reliable - Because semiconductor technology is used in the production of microprocessors,
their failure rate is extremely low.

They are versatile - The same microprocessor chip can be used for numerous applications as long as the
programming is changed, making it incredibly versatile.

Categories of Microprocessors

Microprocessors can be classified in different categories, as follows:.

Based on Word Length

Microprocessors can be based on the number of bits the processor's internal data bus or the number of
bits that it can process at a time (which is known as the word length). Based on its word length, a
microprocessor can be classified as 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit.

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

RISC microprocessors are more general use than those that have a more specific set of instructions. The
execution of instructions in a processor requires a special circuit to load and process data. Because RISC
microprocessors have fewer instructions, they have simpler circuits, which means they operate faster.
Additionally, RISC microprocessors have more registers, use more RAM, and use a fixed number of clock
cycles to execute one instruction.

Complex Instruction Set Computer

CISC microprocessors are the opposite of RISC microprocessors. Their purpose is to reduce the number
of instructions for each program. The number of cycles per instruction is ignored. Because complex
instructions are made directly into the hardware, CISC microprocessors are more complex and slower.
CISC microprocessors use little RAM, have more transistors, have fewer registers, have numerous clock
cycles for each instruction, and have a variety of addressing modes.

Special Purpose Processors

Some microprocessors are built to perform specific functions. For example, coprocessors are used in
combination with a main processor, while a transputer is a transistor computer: a microprocessor that
has its own local memory.
Evolution of Microprocessors

We can categorize the microprocessor according to the generations or according to the size of the
microprocessor:

First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)

The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel Corporation. It was
named Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor.

It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple arithmetic and logical operations such as
addition, subtraction, Boolean OR and Boolean AND.

I had a control unit capable of performing control functions like fetching an instruction from storage
memory, decoding it, and then generating control pulses to execute it.

Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)

The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It was a first 8 - bit
microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. It was Intel 8008,
and another improved version was Intel 8088.

Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)

The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's 8086, Zilog Z800
and 80286, which were 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.

Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)

Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is the
Intel 80386.

Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)

From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor
namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a single system
to achieve multiprocessing.

Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa Core processors.