Chapter 2

The Teacher and The School Curriculum Designing the

Curriculum

Building on Peter Oliva's 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

As we begin to discuss about curriculum designing, all teachers

need to know the different axioms or theorems regarding curriculum
as presented by Gordon, W., Taylor R., and Oliva, P. in 2019.
These axioms will be used to guide curricularist in designing a
curriculum. Axioms are principles that practitioners as curriculum
designer can use as guidelines or a frame of reference.

Ten Axioms About Curriculum That Teachers Need as

Reminders

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable.

Earlier it was stated that one of the characteristics of curriculum is
its being dynamic. Because of this, teachers should respond to the
changes that occur in schools and in their context. Societal
development and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need
to address the changing condition requires new curriculum designs.
2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum
should respond to changes brought about by current social forces,
philosophical positions, psychological principles, new knowledge,
and educational reforms. This is also called timeliness.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently
with newer curriculum changes. A revision in a curriculum starts
and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and
phased out, thus the changes that occur can coexist and oftentimes
overlap for long periods of time.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement
the change. Teachers who will, implement the curriculum should
be involved in its development, hence should know how to design a
curriculum. Because the teachers are the implementers of the
curriculum, it is best that they should design and own the changes.
This will ensure an effective and long lasting change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.
Coup cecisi me mene capect oceculu development are suggested.
Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to a sense
of ownership. Even learners should participate in some aspect of
curriculum designing. Any significant change in the curriculum
should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their
understanding, support, and input.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process
made from choices of alternatives. A curriculum developer or
designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or point of
view to support, now to provide for multicultural groups, what
methods or strategies, and what type of evaluation to use.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous
monitoring, examination, evaluation, and improvement of curricula
are to be considered in the design of the curriculum.
As the needs of learners change, as society changes, and as new
knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must change.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a
comprehensive process, rather than a "piecemeal". A
curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly
establish intended outcomes, support resources and needed time
available and should equip teaching staff pedagogically.
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a
systematic process. A curriculum design is composed of desired
outcomes, subject matter content complemented with references,
set of procedures, needed materials and resources and evaluation
procedure which can be placed in a matrix.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum
is. Curriculum planners and designers should begin with existing
curriculum. An existing design is a good starting point for any
teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum.
Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to
design a curriculum by identifying its components. For most
curricula the major components or elements are answers to the
following questions:
1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended
Learning Outcomes)
2. What content should be included to achieve the learning
outcomes? (Subject Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources should be
employed?
(Teaching-Learning Methods)
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured?.
(Assessment of Achieved Learning Outcomes)

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some

would call it a syllabus or a lesson plan. Some would call it a unit
plan or a course design. Whatever is the name. of the design, the
common components for all of them are almost the same. However
some schools, institutions or departments may add other minor
parts or trimmings to the design.
Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson
plan or teaching guide includes (1) Intended Learning Outcomes
(ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as
behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3) Teaching
and Learning Methods and (4) Assessment Evaluation. Each of
these components or elements is described below.

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning
outcomes are the reasons for undertaking the learning lesson from
the student's point of view; it is desired learning outcome that is to
be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the
learners under the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum
designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning
outcomes to be achieved. In this way, both the learner and the
teacher are guided by what to accomplish.

The behavioral objcctives, intended learning outcomes or desired

Icarning outcomes are expressed in action words found in the
revised Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen and Krathwohl,
2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For the affective
skills, refer to the taxonomy made by Krathwohl and for the
psychomotor domain by Simpson.
The statement should be SMART: Spocific, Measurable, Attainable,
Result-oriented and Time-bound. For a beginner, it would help if
you provide the Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of
Performance in the statement of the intended earning outcomes.
For example, if a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of
a simple flower as stated in the desired learning outcomes, then
students should have identified the parts of a simple flower, at the
end of the lesson. Sometimes the phrase intended learning
outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results after completing
the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is
good practice to:

• Express each outcome in terms of what successful students

will be able to do. For example, rather than stating Students
will be able to explain the reason why... it should be: 'Students
must have explained the reasons why...' This helps students to
focus on what they have to achieve as learning. It will also help
curricularists devise appropriate assessment tasks.
• Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are
cognitive objectives (learning facts, theoriés, formulae,
principles etc.) and performance outcomes (learning how to
carry out procedures, calculations and processes, which
 typically include gathering information and communicating
results). In some contexts, affective outcomes are important
too (for developing attitudes or values, e.g. those required as a
person and for a particular profession).

II. Content/Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that
will be covered. In selecting content, you should bear in mind the
following principles in addition to those mentioned about the
content in previous lessons:
o Subject matter should be relevant to the outeomes of the

curriculum. An effective curriculum is purposive and clearly

focused on the planned learning outcomes.
o Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the ,

lesson or unit. An effective curriculum is progressive, leading

students towards building on previous lessons. Contents which
are too basic or too advanced for the development levels of
learners make students either bored or baffled and affect their
motivation to learn.
o Subject matter should be up-to-date and, if possible, should

reflect current knowledge and concepts.

o Subject matter should follow the principle of B A SIC S.

III. References
The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or
subject matter has been taken. The reference may be a book, a
module, or any publication. It must bear the author of the material
and if possible, the publications. Some examples are given below.
1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary,
Supplementary Conservation and Environmental Education
Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD
2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An
Introduction to Physical Science. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston
MA
 3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course.
Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City
4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). The
Teaching Profession 2»d Ed. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon
City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is
always good to keep in mind the teaching strategies that students
will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and
make them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow
cooperation, competition as well as individualism or independent
learning among the students. For example:
o Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together.

Students are guided to learn on their own to find solutions to

their problems. The role of the teachers is to guide the
learners.
Democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes
to the success of learning. Students learn from each other in
ways. Group projects and activities considerably enhance the
curriculum.
o Independent learning activities allow learners to develop

personal responsibility. The degree of independence to learn

how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for
fast learners.
o Competitive activities, where students will test their

competencies against another in a healthy manner, allow

learners to perform to their maximum. Most successful
individuals in their adult life are competitive, even in early
schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very
competitive world.
o The use of various delivery modes to provide learning

experiences is recommended. Online learning and similar

 modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but these
need to be planned carefully to be effective.

There are some examples of very simple teaching-learning

methods with detailed steps that you can start using as you begin
teaching.

Some Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

A. Direct Instruction: Barak Rosenshine Model (in Ornstien 8e
Hunkins, 2018)
Detailed Steps:
1. State Learning Objectives/ Outcomes: Begin lesson with a
short statement of objective or desired lesson learning
outcomes.
2. Review: Introduce short review of previous or prerequisite
learning.
3. Present new materials: Present materials in small,
sequenced
4. Explain: Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
5. Practice: Provide active practice for all students.
6. Guide. Guide students during initial practice; or provide
seatwork activities.
7. Check for understanding. Ask several questions, assess
students comprehension.
8. Provide Feedback. Provide systematic feedback and
corrections.
9. Assess performance. Obtain student success rate of 80
percent or more during practice session.
10. Review and test. Provide for spaced review and testing.

B. Guided Instruction: Madeline 'Hunter Model (in Ornstein &

Hunkins, 2018)
1. Review. Focus on previous lesson, ask students to summarize
main points.
2. Anticipatory set. Focus student's attention on new lesson.
Stimulate interest in the new materials.
3. Objective. State explicitly what is to be learned; state rationale
or how it will be useful.
4. Input. Identify needed knowledge and skills for learning new
lesson; present materials in sequenced steps.
5. Modeling. Provide several examples or demonstrations
throughout the lesson.
6. Check for understunding. Monitor stud chts work befoe they
become involved in lesson activities, check to see they understand
directions or tasks.
7. Guided practice. Periodically ask students questions and check
their answers. Again monitor understanding.
8. Independent practice. Assign independent work or practice
when it is reasonably sure that students can work on their own with
understanding and minimal frustration.

C. Mastery Learning; JH Block and Lorin Anderson Model (in

Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)

1. Clarify. Explain to students what they are expected to learn.

2. Inform. Teach the lesson, relying on the whole group
instruction.
3. Pretest. Give a formative quiz on a no fault-basis, students
can check their own paper.
4. Group. Based on results, divide the class into mastery and
non-mastery groups (80% is considered mastery)
5. Enrich and correct. Give enrichment instruction to mastery
group. Give corrective (practice/drill) to non-mastery group.
6. Monitor. Monitor student progress; vary amount of teacher
time and support for each group based on group size and
performance.
7. Posttest. Give a summary test for non-mastery group.
 8. Assess performance. At least 75% of the students should
achieve mastery by the summative test.
9. Reteach. If not, repeat procedures; starting with corrective
instructions (small study groups, individual tutoring, alternative
instructional materials, extra homework, reading materials
practice and drill).

D. Systematic Instruction: Thomas Good and Jere Brophy (in

Ornstein and Hunkins, 2018)

1. Review. Review concepts and skills related to homework,

provide review exercises.
2. Development. Promote students understanding, provide
controlled practice.
3. Assess comprehension. Ask questions, provide controlled
practice.
4. Seatwork. Provide uninterrupted seatwork; get everyone
involved, sustain momentum.
5. Accountability. Check the students work.
6. Homework. Assign homework regularly; provide review
problems.
7. Special reviews. Provide weekly reviews to check and further
maintain and enhance learning.

Teaching-Learning Environment
In the choice of the teaching learning methods, equally important is
the teaching suggested four learning environment. Brian Castaldi in
1987 criteria in the provision of the environment or learning spaces
in designing a curriculum. These criteria include (1) adequacy, (2)
suitability, (3) efficiency and (4) economy.

1. Adequacy- This refers to the actual learning space or

classrooms. Is the classroom large enough for student's
mobility for class interaction and collaborative work. Is there
 enough light and ventilation so that the learning space is
conducive, and safe for learning? To provide learning condition
that will provide opportunities that will develop the 21" century
skills, there must be a provision for the utilization of technology
for teaching and learning and the use of the cyberspace.
2. Suitability- This relates to planned activities. Suitability should
consider chronological and developmental ages of learners.
Also to be considered will be the socio-cultural, economic even
religious background of the learners.
3. Efficiency- This refers to operational and instructional
effectiveness.
4. Economy- This refers to cost effectiveness. How much is
needed to provide instructional materials?

VI. Assessment/Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback,
i.e. when they receive information on what they have already (and
have not) learned. The process by which this information is
generated is assessment. It has three main forms:
o Self assessment, through which students learn to monitor and

evaluate their own learning. This should be a significant

element in the curriculum because we aim to produce
graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical.
o Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each

other's learning. This can be viewed as an extension of self-

assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect.
Research suggests that students can learn to judge each
other's work as reliably as staff.
o Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and

administers tests and gives feedback on the student's

performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the

studen lesm more) or summative (expressing a judgment on the
studen achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many
assessmen tasks involve an element of both, e g. an assignment
that is marked and returned to the student with detailed comments.
Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or
grades. This helps the teacher make decisions about the progress
or performance of the students.
Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and
weaknesses of their work than by knowing the mark or grade given
to it. For this reason, summative assessment tasks (including
unseen examinations) should include an element of formative
feedback, if possible.

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other

Curriculum Designs
While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a
mini curriculum, similar components will also be used in making a
syllabus for teaching in higher education courses or other curricular
projects. Based on the curriculum models we have learned, the
fundamental components include the following:
Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus
1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)
2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

Simply put, curriculum design is the organization of curriculum

components. All other additional components are trimmings that
each designer may add. This may be institutional template or
suggested by other curriculum experts or required by educational
agencies like the Department of Education, Commission on Higher
Education, Accrediting Agencies, Professional Regulation
Comission to achieve a specific purpose of such agency.

Lesson 3.2
Approaches to Curriculum Designing

Types of Curriculum Design Models

There are many ways of looking at curriculum and designing. one.
For our own purposes, let us focus on the most widely used
examples.
1. Subject-Centered Design
This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the
curriculum. The subject-centered design corresponds mostly to the
textbock because textbooks are usually written based the specific
subject or course. Henry Morrison and William Harris are the few
curricularists who firmly believed in this design. As practised,
school hours are allócated to different school subjects such as
Science, Mathematics, Language, Social Studies, Physical
Education, and others. This is also practised in the Philippines,
because a school day is divided into class period, a school year
into quarters or semester. Most of the schools using this kind of
structure and curriculum design aim for excellence in the specific
subject discipline content.
Subject-centered curriculum design has also some variations which
are focused on the individual subject, specific discipline and a
combination.of subjects or disciplines which are a broad field or
interdisciplinary.

1.1. Subject design. What subject are you teaching? What subject
are you taking? These are two simple questions that the teacher
and the learner can casily answer. It is because they are familiar
with the subject design curriculum.
Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar
design for teachers, parents and other laymen.
According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage
because it is easy to deliver. Textbooks are written and support
instructional materials are commercially available. Teachers are
• familiar with the format, because they were educated using also
the design. In the Philippine educational system, the number of
subjects in the elementary education is fewer than in the secondary
level. In college, the number of subjects also differs according to
the degree programs being pursued. For each subject, a curriculum
is being designed.
However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is
so compartmentalized. It stresses so much the content and forgets
about students' natural tendencies, interests and experiences. The
teacher becomes the dispenser of knowledge and the learners are
the simply the empty vessel to receive the information or content
from the teacher. This is a traditional approach to teaching and
learning.
1.2 Discipline design. This curriculum design model is related to
the subject design. However, while subject design centers only on
the cluster of content, discipline design focuses on academic
disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through
a method which the scholars use to study a specific content of their
fields. Students in history should learn the subject matter like
historians, students in biology should learn how the biologists leam,
and so with students in mathematics, who should learn how
mathematicians learn. In the same manner, teachers should teach
how the scholars in the discipline will convey the particular
knowledge.
Discipline design model of curriculum is often used in college, but
not in the elementary or secondary levels. So from the subject-
centered curriculum, curriculum moves higher to a discipline when
the students are more mature and are already moving towards their
career path or disciplines as science, mathematics, psychology,
humanities, history and others.
1.3 Correlation design. Coming from a core, correlated curriculum
design links separate subject designs in order to reduce
fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another and still
maintain their identity. For example, English literature and social
studies correlate well in the elementary level. In the two subjects,
while history is being studied, different literary pieces during the
historical period are also being studied, The same is true when
science becomes the core, mathematics is related to it, as they are
taken in chemistry, physics and biology. Another example is
literature as the core with art, music, history, geography related to
it. To use correlated design, teachers should come together and
plan their lessons cooperatively.
1.4 Broad field design/interdisciplinary. Broad field design or
interdisciplinary is a variation of the subject-centered design, This
design was made to cure the compartmentalization of the separate
subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another.
Thus subjects such as geography, economics, political science,
anthropology, sociology and history are fused into one subject
called social studies. Language arts will include grammar, literature,
linguistics, spelling, and composition.
Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad fields draw around
themes and integration. Interdisciplinary design is similar to
thematic design, where a specific theme is identified, and all other
subject areas revolve around the theme.

1. Learner-Centered Design
Among progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the
center of the educative process. This emphasis is very strong in the
elementary level, however, more concern has been placed on the
secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the
subject or content has become the focus and in the college level,
the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize the
importance of the learner in the curriculum.
Here are some examples of curriculum designs which are learner-
centered.
o 1.1 Child-centered design. This design is often attributed to

the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel.

This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests
 of the child. The learner is not considered a passive individual
but one who engages with his/her environment. One learns by
doing.
Learners actively create, construct meanings and
understanding as viewed by the constructivists. In the child-
centered design, learners interact with the teachers and the
environment, thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides
to plan lessons, select content and do activities together.
Learning is a product of the child's interaction with the
environment.
o 1.2 Experience-centered design. This design is similar to the
child-centered design. Although the focus remains to be the
child, experience-centered design believes that the interests
and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead,
experiences of the learners become the starting point of the
curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free.
Learners are made to choose from various activities that the
teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their
own learning from the different opportunities given by the
teacher: In a school where experience-confered curriculum is
provided, different learning centers are found, time is flexible
and children are free to make options. Activities revolve around
different emphasis such as touching, feeling, imagining,
constructing, relating and others. The emergence of multiple
intelligence theory blends well with experience-centered design
curriculum.
o 1.3 Humanistic design. The key influence in this curriculum
design is Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow's theory
of self-actualization explains that a person who achieves this
level is accepting of selt, others and nature; is simple,
spontaneous and natural; is open to different experiences;
possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate
among the many others. The person can achieve this state of
self-actualization later in life but has to start the process while
 still in school. Carl Rogers, on the other hand, believed that a
person can enhance self-directed learning by improving self-
understanding, the basic attitude to guide behavior. In a
humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the
ultimate objective of learning. It stresses the whole person and
the integration of thinking, feeling and doing. It considers the
cognitive; affective and psychomotor domains to be
interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum. It
stresses the development of positive self-concept and
interpersonal skills.

2. Problem-Centered Design
Generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems,
needs, interest and abilities of the learners. Various problems are
given emphasis. There are those that center on life situations,
contemporary life problems, areas of living and many others. In this
curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be
based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students. Two
examples are given for the problem- centered design curriculum.
2.1 Life-situations design. What makes the design unique is that the
contents are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view
problem areas. It uses the past and the present experience living.
As a starting point, the pressing immediate problems of the society
and the students' existing concerns are utilized. Based on Herbert
Spencer's curriculum writing, his emphases were activities that
sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing children, maintain the
individual's social and political relations and enhance leisure, tasks
and feelings. The connection of subject matter to real situations
increases the relevance of the curriculum.

Approaches to Curriculum Design Models

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After
writing a curriculum based on the specific design, let us see how a
teacher will approach this. We will find out the utilization of the
example design.
Child or Learner-Centered Approach. This approach to curriculum
design is based on the underlying philosophy that the child or the
learner is the center of the educational process. It means that the
curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes
and abilities of the learners. The curriculum-is also built upon the
learners' knowledge, skills, previous learnings and potentials.
From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be
approached? Let us consider these principles..

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of
the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural
classroom

Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a curriculum

design which prescribes separate distinct subjects for every
educational level: basic education, higher education or vocational-
technical education. This approach considers the following
principles:
1. The primary focus is the subject matter.
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may
be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems
of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher's role is to dispense the content.

Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is based on a design

which assumes that in the process of living, children experience
problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to individuals
become increasingly able to achieve complete or total development
as This approach is characterized by the following views and
beliefs:
1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves
in resolving problems, thus developing every learner to be
independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities
through direct participation in different activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the redognition of
concerns and problems in seeking solutions. Learners are
problem solvers themselves.

Lesson 3.3 Curriculum Mapping and Curriculum Quality Audit

Curriculum Mapping
Curriculum mapping is a model for designing, refining, upgrading
and reviewing the curriculum resulting in a framework that provides
form, focus and function (Hale and Dunlap, 2010). It is a reflective
process tat helps teachers understand what has been taught in
class., how it has been taught and how learning outcomes are
assessed. This process was introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in
2004 in her book Getting results with Curriculum Mapping (ASCD,
2004). This approach is an ongoing process or "work-in-progress".
It is not a one time initiative but a continuing action, which involves
the teacher and other stakeholders, who have common concerns.
Curriculum mapping can be done byteachers alone, a group of
teachers teaching the same subject, the department, the whole
school or district or the whole educational system.
Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as making
a map to success. There are common questions that are asked by
different stakeholders, like teachers, colleagues, parents, school
officials and the community as well. These questions may include:
1. What do my students learn?
2. What do they study in the first quarter?
 3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year?
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject, cover the
same content? Achieve the same outcomes? Use similar
strategies?
5. How do I help my students understand the connections
between my subjects and other subjects within the year?
Next year?
Curriculum mapping, may be able to answer these questions
above.
Furthermore, mapping will produce a curriculum map, which is a
very functional tool in curriculum development.

Benefits of Curriculum Mapping

1. Curriculum mapping ensures alignment of the desired learning
outcomes, learning activities and assessment of learning.
2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps of repetitions in the
curriculum. It reveals if certain program goals or learning
outcomes are not adequately covered or overly emphasized in
the current curriculum.
3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies and establishes
alignment between what students do in their courses and what
is taught in the classrooms and assessed as their learning.
4. The curriculum maps visually show important elements of the
curriculum and how they contribute to student learning.
5. Curriculum mapping connects all initiatives from instruction,
pedagogies, assessment and professional development. It
facilitates the integration of cross-curricular skills.

Curriculum Mapping Process

There are many ways of doing things, according to what outcome
one needs to produce. This is also true with curriculum mapping.
However, whatever outcome (map) will be made, there are
suggested steps to follow.
Example A.
1. Make a matrix or a spread shect.
2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one quarter, one
semester, one year) This should be dependent on time
frame of a particular curriculum that was written.
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills needed to be
taught or achieved at the end of the teaching.
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas/subject areas to
be covered.
5. Align and name each resource available such as textbooks,
workbooks, module next to subject areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learing methods to be used to achieve
the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the
intended learning outcomes, content areas, and resources.
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their
inputs.
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute
to all concerned.

You will find Example A as a component of an OBE-Inspired

syllabus for the higher education. However, this can be modified for
basic education to serve the specific purpose as you will see in
some maps.
Example B (For a degree program in college)*
1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.
2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (ex. BEEd, or BSED)
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree (GenEd,
Prof.
Ed, and Major for BSEd)
4. List the subjects along the vertical cells of the matrix in a
logical or chronological order.
 5. List the degree program outcomes along the horizontal cell
(use code as POI, PO2...if outcomes are too long to fit in the
cell) PO means Program Outcomes
6. Cross the Subject and the Outcome, and determine if such
subject accomplishes the outcomes as either Learned (L),
Performed (P) of given Opportunity (O). Place the code in the
corresponding cell.
7. Fill up all cells.
8. After accomplishing the map, use it as a guide for all teachers
teaching the course for students to complete the degree in four
years.

The Curriculum Map

Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline desired learning
outcomes to be achieved, contents, skills and values taught,
instructional time, assessment to be used, and the overall student
movement towards the attainment of the intended outcomes.
Curricular maps may be simple or elaborate that can be used by an
individual teacher, a department, the whole school or educational
system. A map is geared to a school calendar.
Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in
schools to maintain excellence, efficiency and effectiveness. It is.
intended to improve instruction and maintain quality of education
that all stakeholders need to be assured of.
Sometimes, parents and teachers would ask questions like: "Why is
my friend's son studying decimals in Mr. Bernardo's class and my
own son is not studying the same in Miss Julia's class when they
are of the same grade level?" or "Why do some of my students
recognize the parts of speech while others are totally lost?"
Parents, teachers and the whole educational community can look at
the curriculum map. to see that intended outcomes and content are
covered. A map can reassure stakeholders specific information for
pacing, and alignment of the subject horizontally or vertically. It will
also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies and misalignment. Courses
that are not correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly assess
the mastery of the skills in the previous grade, to avoid
unnecessary reteaching.
Horizontal alignment, called sometimes as "pacing guide", will
make all teachers, teaching the same subject in a grade level follow
the same timeline and accomplishing the same learning outcomes.
This is necessary for state-mandated, standard-based assessment
that we have in schools. Vertical alignment, will see to it that
concept development which may be in hierarchy or in spiral form
does not overlap but building from a simple to more complicated
concepts and skills. Alignment, either vertical or horizontal, will also
develop interdisciplinary connections among teachers and
students, between and among courses. Teachers can verify that
skills and content are addressed in other courses or to higher
levels, thus making learning more relevant.
A curriculum map is always a work in progress, that enables the
teacher or the curriculum review team to create and recreate the
curriculum. It provides a good information for modification of
curriculum, changing of standards and competencies in order to
find ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.

Chapter 3
The Teacher and The School Curriculum Implementing the
Curriculum

Curriculum Implementation Defined

Following the curriculum models of Tyler, Taba, Saylor and

Alexander or Lewis, is the next step to curriculum designing which
is curriculum implementing. This is the phase where teacher action
takes place. It is one of the most crucial process in curriculum
development although many education planners would say: "A
good plan is work half done." If this is so, then the other half of the
success of curriculum development rests in the hands of the
implementor who is the teacher.
Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written
curriculum that has been designed in syllabi, course of study,
curricular guides, and subjects. It is a process wherein the learners
acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively
in society. (SADC
MoE Africa, 2000)
Ornstein and Hunkins in (1998) defined curriculum implementation
as the interaction between the curriculum that has been written and
planned and the persons (teachers) who are in charge to deliver it.
To them, curriculum implementation implies the following:
o Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum;

o Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes' of the persons

involved;
o Change in behavior using new strategies and resources; and

o Change which requires efforts hence goals should be

achievable.
Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as
the trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when actually
used in a school system. It simply means that implementation
should bring the desired change and improvement.
In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means
“teaching" what has been written in the lesson plan. Implementing
means using the plan as a guide to engage with the learners in the
teaching-learning process with the end in view that learning has
occurred and learning outcomes have been achieved. It involves
the different strategies of teaching with the support instructional
materials to go with the strategy.
In a larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the
curriculum into operation with the different implementing agents.
Curriculum implementation takes place in a class, a school, a
district, a division, or the whole educational system. In higher
education, curriculum implementation happens for the course, a
degree program, the institution, or the whole higher education
system. It requires time, money, personal interaction, personal
contacts, and support.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change

Kurt Lewin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the
process of change. The model can be used to explain curriculum
change and implementation.
In the education landscape, there are always two forces that
oppose each other. These are the driving force and the restraining
force. When these two forces are equal, the state is equilibrium, or
balance. There will be a status quo, hence there will be no change.
The situation or condition will stay the same: However, when the
driving force overpowers the restraining force, then change will
occur. If the opposite happens that is when the restraining force is
stronger than the driving force, change is prevented. This is the
idea of Kurt Lewin in his Force Field Theory.
We shall use this theory to explain curriculum change. The
illustration below shows that there are driving forces on the left and
the resisting forces on the right. If you look at the illustration there is
equilibrium. If the driving force is equal to the restraining force,
in this situation? Do you think, there will be curriculum change in
this situation? Why?
According to Lewin, change will be better if the restraining forces
shall be decreased, rather than increasing the driving force, As a
curricularist, how would you do this? Let us look first at the different
changes that occur in the curriculum. It is important to identify these
as part of our understanding of curriculum implementation.

Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 2000 categorized curriculum change as follows:
1. Substitution. The current curriculum will be replaced or
substituted by a new one. Sometimes, we call this a complete
overhaul. Example, changing an old book to entirely new one,
not merely a revision.
2. Alteration. In alteration, there is a minor change to the current
or existing curriculum. For example, instead of using a
graphing paper for mathematics teaching, this can be altered.
by using a graphing calculator.
3. Restructuring. Building a new structure would mean major
change or modification in the school system, degree program
or educational system. Using an integrated curriculum for the
whole school for K to 12 requires the primary and secondary
levels to work as a team. Another example is a curriculum that
will be restructured when there is a significant involvement of
parents in the child's instead of leaving everything to the
teacher. Using the "In-school Off-school" or a blended
curriculum is an example of restructuring:
4. Perturbations. These are changes that are disruptive, but
teachers have to adjust to them within a fairly short time. For
example, if the principal changes the time schedule because
there is a need to catch up with the national testing time or the
dean, the teacher has to shorten schedule to accommodate
unplanned extra curricular activities.
5. Value orientation. To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum
change. Perhaps this classification will respond to shift in the
emphasis that the teacher provides which are not within the
mission or vision of the school or vice versa. For example,
when new teachers who are recruited in religious schools give
emphasis on academics and forget the formation of values or
faith, they need a curriculum value orientation.
Likewise, all teachers in the public schools, undergo teacher
induction program which is a special curriculum for newly hired
teachers.
Regardless of the kind of change in curriculum and implementation,
the process of change may contain three important elements. As a
process, curriculum implementation should be developmental,
participatory and supportive.
It should be developmental in the sense that it should develop
multiple perspectives, increase integration and make learning
autonomous, create a climate of openness and trust, and
appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher, There should be
teacher support in trying new tasks, reflection on the new
experiences and challenge.
There are simple stages in the developmental change process for
the teachers. First, is orientation and preparation. The initial use is
very mechanical or routinary. However, as the skills are honed and
mastery of the routine is established, refinement follows. This
means adjustments are made to better meet the needs of the
learners and achieve the learning outcomes. In this step, there will
be continuous reflection, feedback and refinement.
Participatory. For curriculum implementation to succeed, it should
be participatory, specially because other stakeholders like peers,
school leaders, parents and curriculum specialists are necessary.
Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment, willingness to
change, skills, and readiness are critical to implementation, This
should be coupled with organizational structure, principal style,
student population characteristics and other factors. Trust among
key players should also be sought as this is a positive starting
point. Involvement and participation encourage sense of ownership
and accountability.
Participation builds a learning community which is very necessary
in curriculum implementation.
Supportive curriculum implementation is required in the process of
change. Material support like supplies, equipment and conductive
learning environment like classrooms and laboratory should be
made available. Likewise, human support is very much needed.
The school leader or head should provide full school or institutional
support to the implementation of the new curriculum. They too have
to train to understand how to address curriculum change as part of
their instructional as well as management functions.
Time is an important commodity for a successful change process.
For any innovation to be fully implemented, period of three to five
years to institutionalize a curriculum is suggested. Time is needed
by the teachers to plan, adapt, train or practise, provide the
necessary requirements and get support. Time is also needed to
determine when implementation is time bound.
the implementation starts and when it will conclude, since
curriculum Support from peers, principals, external stakeholders will
add to the success of implementation. When teachers share ideas,
work together, solve problems, create new materials, and celebrate
success, more likely that curriculum implementation will be
welcomed.