NOZZLES

The function of the rocket nozzle is to convert the thermal energy in the propellant into kinetic energy as efficiently as possible, in order to obtain high exhaust velocity along the desired direction. The mass of a rocket nozzle is a large part of the engine mass. Many of the failures encountered in rocket engines are also traceable to failures of the nozzle historical data suggest that 50% of solid rocket failures stemmed from nozzle problems. The design of the nozzle must trade off: 1. 2. Nozzle size (needed to get better performance) against nozzle weight penalty. Complexity of the shape for shock-free performance vs. cost of fabrication

Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath

T-s Diagram (or h-s Diagram) for a nozzle: Ideal p0 p* pe

T0 T

Q/cp i

f t e Entropy s

i: reactants at chamber pressure p0 f: final mixture at combustion chamber stagnation conditions p0 ,T0 t: throat conditions. Mach 1, p*, T* e: exit conditions pe ,Te (assuming fully expanded) Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath 2

T-s Diagram (or h-s Diagram) for a nozzle: with losses

Losses show up as increases in entropy for each step usually accompanied by a loss of pressure. At the exhaust, note that exhaust temperature is higher than ideal when the final pressure is reached.

T0 T

Q/cp i e Entropy s

p0 p* t pe

i: reactants at chamber pressure p0i f: final mixture at combustion chamber stagnation conditions p0 ,T0 t: throat conditions. Mach 1, p*, T* e: exit conditions pe ,Te (assuming fully expanded). Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath 3

Recall Expressions for Thrust Coefficient - 1

CF = F At p0
1/(! #1)

where At is nozzle throat area and p0 is chamber pressure (N/m2) Thus,

ut = ! RTt

For sonic conditions at the throat, and

$ 2 % "t = " 0 & ! + 1' ( )

1/ 2

# 2T T ' 2 (1/ (! "1) % ' p ((! "1) / ! & $ ) ) *1 " . e / +F = At p0! R , t 0 . ! "1 0 ! + 1/ * 0 p0 1 +) 1 ) 2 35 4

+ ( pe " p0 ) Ae

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Thrust Coefficient - 2 Using isentropic flow relations,

2 $! +1

# p0 $ # 2 TtT0 = % "t R & % ! + 1 & ) ( )(

# ! +1 $ ( ) $% ! '1 &

1 # 2 2% ! + 1& "t ' (

1 "0 2
! +1 (! "1 %

# ) 2 ' 2 F = At p0! * ! " 1. ! + 1/ 0 1 ) 4

and Thrust Coefficient

' pe ,1 " . / 2 0 p0 1 3
1/ 2

! "1 1/ 2 $ ! ) (&

+ ) 5

+ ( pe " pa ) Ae

! "1 ! +1 # 2 $ ! ) ! "1 % ' p (& ) 2! ' 2 ( CF = * 1 " . e /- + , ! " 1 . ! + 1 / 2 0 p0 1 3 ) 0 1 ) 4 5

( pe " pa ) Ae p0 At

Depends entirely on nozzle characteristics. The thrust coefficient is used to evaluate nozzle performance.
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Characteristic Velocity c* Used to characterize the performance of propellants and combustion chambers independent of the nozzle characteristics.
! +1 # $ 2(! "1) ' p0 At ' % 2 & p0 At & m= ( )! + *= , ! RT0 ' - ! + 1 . ! RT0 ' / 0

where ! is the quantity in brackets. Note: So

a0 = ! RT0

p0 At & m= ! a0

Characteristic velocity

Assuming steady, quasi-1-dimensional, perfect gas. The condition for maximum thrust is ideal expansion: nozzle exit static pressure being equal to the outside pressure. In other words,

p0 At c* = & m

pe = pa

Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath

Nozzle Types
The subsonic portion of the nozzle is quite insensitive to shape the subsonic portion of the acceleration remains isentropic. The divergent nozzle is where the decisions come into play. Conical Nozzle Easier to manufacture for small thrusters Divergence losses: Exit velocity is not all in the desired direction. Bell Nozzle Complex shape Highest efficiency (near axial flow at exhaust) Large base drag during atmospheric flight after burnout Plug Nozzle or Aerospike Nozzle (linear or annular) (X-33, VentureStar, 1960s concept ) Altitude compensating (see Chang 3-30c) Shortest nozzle of the enclosed types.
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Expansion- Deflection Nozzle (E-D)

Conical Nozzle
Easier to manufacture for small thrusters Divergence losses: Exit velocity is not all in the desired direction.

1 ! = (1 + Cos" ) 2 98.3%@" # 150

Note: can be as large as 12 to 18 degrees.

! $1 ! +1 % 2 & + 2! ) 2 *! $1 ' ) pe * ( ! + CF = " , .1 $ / ! $ 1 0 ! + 1 1 4 0 p0 1 5 + 2 3 2 3 + 6 7
1/ 2

+#

( pe $ pa ) p0

Here is the thrust efficiency, defined as ratio of actual to ideal thrust , accounting for flow divergence. is the nozzle Area Ratio (ratio of exit area to throat area).
Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath 8

Geometric Representations of Nozzles

Cone nozzle

2Rt R1 Rt R1 N LN Re N LN

Re = ! Rt
x

Throat internal radius Radius of curvature of the nozzle contraction

X N = R1Sin! YN = Rt + R1 (1 " Cos! )

Transition point from circular contour to conical contour. Located along at angle a downstream of throat. Nozzle Length: # 1 $ Rt ! % 1 + R1 & % 1' : ( Cos" ) LN = Tan" Exit radius

For a conical nozzle,

R1 ! 1.5 Rt

is a typical choice.

Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath

Bell Nozzle
Complex shape Highest efficiency (near axial flow at exhaust) Large Base Drag during atmospheric flight after burnout A true bell nozzle is contoured to minimize the turning (compression) shock losses at the wall as the flow expands, but still turning the flow towards an axial exhaust. Note that the flow may still be under-, over- or fully-expanded at the exit, and hence shocks / expansions may exist downstream.

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Bell Nozzle
An approximate shape can be formed from a parabola (after G.V.R. Rao)

y ' = Px '+ Q + ( Sx '+ T )1/ 2

y R1 Rt N

1
L x

Re = ! Rt
x

R1 = 1.5 Rt

Upstream of the throat

R1 = 0.382 Rt Downstream of the throat

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Parabolic Bell Nozzle Contour, contd (Rao, 1958)

There are 4 unknowns in the rotated parabolic segment equation (P,Q,S,T) and 4 boundary conditions 1. At N: X ' N = 0;Y ' N = 0 2. At e:

X 'e = X e ! X N ;Y 'e = Ye ! YN

Or, X 'e = X e " X N = L " X N ;

Y 'e = Ye " YN = ! Rt " YN

3. At N: ! N 2. At e: ! e

is given (Rao, 1958, plots) is given (Rao, 1958, plots)

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So, 1 2 1. Y ' N = PX ' N + Q + ( SX ' N + T ) and hence 2. and 3.

T = Q2
1 2 1 2

..(A)

Y 'e = PX 'e + Q + ( SX 'e + T ) ( SX 'e + T )

= Y 'e ! PX 'e ! Q

# dy' & S Tan" = % ( = P + ............(B) 1/2 $ dx' ' N (from (A)) 2(SX' N +T ) S Tan" N # P = 2Q S Q= .. (C) 2(Tan" N # P)
S 2( SX 'e + T )
1 2

4. Tan! e = P +
1

!
( SX 'e + T )
2

S 2(Tan! e " P )

(D) Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath 13

Equating (B) = (D) leads after some manipulation, to

S= 2(Tan! e " P )(Tan! N " P )(Y 'e + PX 'e ) Tan! N " Tan! e

(E)

Also, squaring (B)

SX 'e + T = [Y 'e ! PX 'e ! Q ]
2

Substituting for Q from (C),

(Y 'e " PX 'e ) 2 (Tan! N " P ) S= X 'e Tan! N " Y 'e

(F)

Eventually gives
P= Y 'e Tan! N + Y 'e Tan! e " 2 X 'e Tan! eTan! N 2Y 'e " X 'e Tan! N " X 'e Tan! e

(G)

Down to one unknown.

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Use eqn. (G) to find P = P ( X 'e , Y 'e ,! N ,! e ) Then either (F) or (E) to get S Then use (C) to get Q Then use (A) to get T in terms of the original X,Y axes.
1 ) + T ]2

Y = YN + P ( X ! X N ) + Q + [ S ( X ! X N
Recall: and
Y 'e = Ye # YN = ! Rt # [ Rt + R1 (1 # Cos" N )]

X 'e = X e " X N = L " R1Sin! N

where L is generally a fraction of that for a 15-degree half-angle cone with the same R1 (i.e., 0.382Rt)

" " 1 ## Rt ( ! $ 1) + R1 % $ 1& & % ' cos150 ( L= f % & tan150 % & % & ' (

f = 100%; 90% or 80% of a 15-degree cone.

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Comparison of bell and cone nozzles

For the same , we would expect

!bell > !cone

A bell nozzle, while more complex to build, will generally yield a more efficient exhaust than a cone in a shorter nozzle length. Same nozzle efficiency factor can be reached with about 70% of the length of a cone nozzle. Alternatively, efficiency factor can be increased from about 98% for a cone to about 99.2% for a bell of the same length

Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath

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Types of Nozzles

In this lecture we will continue the discussion on nozzles: Types of nozzles Expansion Ratio criteria Nozzle heat transfer and materials issues

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Comparison of Optimal Nozzles (source: Huzel & Huang, 1967)

E-D: Expansion-Deflection Spike: Plug R-F: Reverse Flow H-F: Horizontal Flow

http://www.aerospaceweb.org/design/aerospike/shapes.shtml Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath 18

Annular Nozzles
Expansion-Deflection Nozzle and Plug Nozzle Substantially shorter than conical or bell nozzles for the same thrust and area ratio. Design-point performance is nearly as good. Off-design performance is better under conditions where conventional nozzles would be over-expanded. Common feature: Free shear layer bounding nozzle flow.

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Spike Nozzle Flow Geometries

[from Berman and Crimp, 1961]

External expansion

Internal-external expansion

Internal expansion
http://www.aerospaceweb.org/design/aerospike/inflow.shtml

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Effect of Replacing Spike with Cone

[from Berman and Crimp, 1961]

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Aerospike
Source: Hill & Peterson, p. 540

Truncates full spike and adds secondary base flow to help contour the inner flow.

http://www.aerospaceweb.org/design/aerospike/aerospike.shtml Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath

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Aerospike Flow Features

Rocketdyne RS2200. Flynn, 1996

Ruf and McConnaughey, 1997

Thrust = Fthruster+Fcenterbody+Fbase

Copyright 2004 23 http://www.aerospaceweb.org/design/aerospike/aerodynamics.shtml Narayanan Komerath

Theoretical Performance Comparison

[from Huzel and Huang, 1967] Note: The aerospike is susbtantially better at low altitudes where the bell and cone are likely to be overexpanded.

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Linear Aerospike
Combustion chamber modules placed along the inside.

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Advantages Much smaller size Altitude compensation Lower chamber pressure / higher expansion ratio: safer Lower vehicle drag Lower vehicle weight Modular: lower manufacture and repair costs; lower downtime Thrust Vectoring: mass flow through individual elements can be controlled. Disadvantages Heating. More complex geometry
http://www.aerospaceweb.org/design/aerospike/x33.shtml ??? (not much experience to-date)

Advantages and Disadvantages

Rocketdyne, 99
Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath 26

METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS
The name comes from a method used to solve hyperbolic partial differential equations: Find "characteristic lines" (combinations of the independent variables) along which the partial differential equation reduces to a set of ordinary differential equations, or even, in some cases, to algebraic equations which are easier to solve. In aerodynamics, the method is easily related to physical features of the flow.

Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath

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1. Introduction using physical arguments. In supersonic flow, small disturbances cannot propagate upstream. (Why SMALL? Because large disturbances such as detonations travel at the speed of sound appropriate to their internal conditions, which may be a lot faster than the ambient speed of sound. If a missile explodes behind a fighter flying at Mach 2, chances are that it is all over for the fighter. ) "Mach cones" or "Mach Waves", are inclined at the "Mach angle" to the flow direction. So, Disturbance at a point along a streamline in a supersonic flow is first felt along a Mach wave originating from that point on the streamline. The flow upstream of the Mach wave is "undisturbed - properties unchanged. Thus, changes in properties occur across Mach waves. Each Mach wave can be considered to be the dividing line between regions of slightly different properties. In a 2-dimensional flow, we can think of Mach waves going out on both sides of the streamline. We might call these the "left-running Mach wave" and the "right-running Mach wave".

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Mach waves are "characteristic directions". ON the Mach wave, properties are indeterminate. A "determinant goes to zero" to keep the solution from blowing up: suddenly a new, simpler equation is available...

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MOC calculation: We step short, finite distances along streamlines, and assume that properties remain constant unless we cross a Mach wave emanating from somewhere. Each time there is such a change, new Mach waves are generated. We determine properties at a new point along each streamline by seeing what Mach waves intersect there (where did those Mach waves come from, and hence, what were the properties there?) We march downstream. Detailed derivations: 1. 2. Show that the Mach waves are indeed characteristic directions of the partial differential equation describing the flow (in this case, the linearized potential equation for 2-D supersonic flow). Obtain relations between pressure and velocity along those lines, and use them to solve simultaneous algebraic equations to get conditions at each point.
Copyright 2004 Narayanan Komerath 30

Results:

Integrating, we get:

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The integral may be familiar. You encountered it (many moons ago) in AE 3004 under the section on Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans In other words, the integral is simply the PrandtlMeyer function n(M).

The above equation is called the compatibility relationship, and must be satisfied by the flow angle and the Mach number at every point on the two families of characteristic lines derived earlier. Specifically, Along the line, called the C- characteristic

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Along the line, called the C+ characteristic

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Some questions 1. Which is a wing? Which is an airfoil? 2. What is the difference between a Supercritical Airfoil and a Supersonic Airfoil 3. What is the difference between a Supersonic leading edge and a Supersonic Airfoil leading edge? 4. What method would you use to analyze: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. (incomp. flow, airfoil) (incomp. flow, high AR wing) (incomp. flow, low AR wing) (subsonic flow, high-AR wing) (subsonic flow, low-AR wing) (supercritical flow, airfoil) (supersonic flow, airfoil) (supersonic flow, wing with subsonic le) (supersonic flow, wing with supersonic le) (incomp. flow, airfoil, lift and pitching moment) (incomp. flow, airfoil, lift, pitching moment, drag) (subsonic flow, airfoil, lift, pitching moment) (incomp flow, wing, lift, pitching moment, induced drag) (incomp flow, wing, lift, pitchingCopyright 2004 moment, total drag)
Narayanan Komerath

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