1DECLARATION

Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that this project work is the results of my original research and that no

part has been presented for another award to the St. Monica’s’ College of Education,

Mampong-Ashanti or elsewhere. All sources of borrowed materials have been duly

acknowledged.

Candidate’s Signature…………………..… Date: ……………………….

Name: Nkrumah Joyce

Supervisor’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this project work was

supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of project work laid down

by the St. Monica’s’ College of Education, Mampong-Ashanti.

Supervisor’s Signature: …………………....…… Date: ……………………….

Name: Akosua Baah

 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to further understanding regarding how Ghanaian teachers

make meaning about gender and how their conceptions translate into the classroom

environment. The teachers were also asked to discuss any formal training they had in

gender sensitivity, and how important they consider gender equity to be in today’s

educational system. Respondents included 20 teachers of various age groups of selected

schools in the Mampong municipality, who participated in in-depth interviews over a

four-month data collection period. Data were coded using the mixed-methods software

Dedoose and then mined for themes with memoing. Results indicated that teachers

perceived gender to be largely a biological distinction between the sexes, although some

included sexual identity and personality traits in their definitions. The influence of being

a parent and a teacher was found to be especially strong, with parents-as teachers

holding more sex-based notions of gender than teachers without children. None of the

teachers interviewed had received any formal gender sensitivity training, although all

perceived that such training would be beneficial in their schools. However, issues such

as race and poverty were considered of more critical importance than gender. The data

shows a classroom culture in which gender-differentiated treatment in pedagogical

decision-making, including lesson planning, behavioral direction, and student-teacher

interaction is the norm, not the exception. The findings suggest that the lack of clarity

and intentionality in teachers’ conceptions of gender, combined with the absence of

gender sensitivity training, has contributed to an educational environment in which

gender inequities are prevalent.

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A very special gratitude goes to my Supervisor, Akosua Baah for her patience, critical

supervision and encouragement throughout this work. I must express my profound

gratitude to my mother, Mrs Yaa Mansah for her unconditional love and prayers in

making my dreams reality. I also thank my siblings for their endless source of love

throughout this journey.

 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my parents

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT Page

DECLARATION i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

DEDICATION iv

TABLE OF CONTENT v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

Contents

CHAPTER ONE 9

INTRODUCTION 11

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 11

. Statement of the problem 13

Purpose of the study 13

Research Objectives 14

Research Questions 14

Significance of the study 14

Delimitation of the study 15

Limitations of the study 15

Organization of the study 15

CHAPTER TWO 16

Review of Related Literature 16

Introduction 16

The Concept Of Gender And Its Related Terms 17

Gender 17

Gender inequality 19

Gender Equality 21

The International Arena 24

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) 25

Teacher Perceptions 26

Gender and Classroom Practices 27

CHAPTER THREE 31

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 31

RESEARCH DESIGN. 31

POPULATION 31

Sample & Sampling Technique 31

Data-gathering Instruments. 32

Data Collection Procedure 32

Data Analysis 32

CHAPTER FOUR 33
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 33

CONCEPTIONS OF GENDER( MEANINGS AND PRACTICES) 33

GENDER SENSITIVITY TRAINING 44

PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION 46

CHAPTER FIVE 47

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 48

Introduction 48

Summary of findings 48

Conclusion 49

Recommendations 50

APPENDICES 53

EQUITY IN EDUCATION INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 53

 LIST OF FIGURES

TABLE PAGE

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Issues of Importance Based on Teacher Responses 36

 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Respondents schedule and dates 25

Table 2: Gender meaning and practice 25

Table 3: Gender sensitivity training 35

Table 4: Issues of importance in education 36

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Worldwide productivity growth and the pace of human development are slowing (ILO,
2017), and women’s full and effective participation in the workforce and decent work for
all are critical to inclusive and sustainable economic growth. While women account for half
of the total population, they remain an underused resource, constituting less than a third of
the actual workforce (Lagarde, 2013). According to the report of the United Nations (UN)
High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic Empowerment, 700 million fewer women than
men of working age were in paid employment in 2016, and even when women are paid,
they tend to work in jobs with relatively low earnings, poor working conditions, and limited
career prospects (UN, 2016). Implementing policies that remove labor market distortions
and create a level playing field for all gives women the opportunity to develop their
potential and to participate in economic life more visibly (IMF, 2013). Furthermore,
women are more likely to invest their resources in education and the health of their
children, building human capital to fuel future growth (Schultz, 2002). Helping women
fully participate in the economy is not only growth promoting, but it also diversifies the
economies, reduces income inequality, mitigates demographic shifts, and contributes to
financial sector stability (Gonzales et al., 2015; Kochhar et al., 2017; IMF 2018). In many
countries, constraints such as discriminatory laws, a lack of legal protection,unfavorable
social norms, and a lack of access to real and financial assets have held women back,
which, in turn, have held back the economies (World Development Report (WDR) 2012).
Gender equality and the empowerment of women are, thus, not merely issues of human
rights, but also economic necessities, and central to the development agenda (IMF and WB
2007; IMF 2017).

In Albania, a World Bank study highlighted parental concerns about the unequal
treatment of teachers as a result of gender-based prejudices. One parent stated that "some
teachers communicate differently with boys and girls. It is due to the lack of
communication that many boys skip classes or drop out of school." There is also proof that
some teachers have stereotypes about the intelligence of boys and girls. The same World
Bank report revealed a widely held prejudice that boys are more intelligent than girls and
that girl's good results are only due to their hard work. A similar study (Association of
Women with University Education) found that 20 percent of the teachers thought that girls
and boys should follow seperate educational programs. Choosing a career follows a similar
pattern: in Romania, teachers see the future of their students differently, according to their
gender. Generally, well-paid and prestigious jobs are thought as being appropriate for
boys( broker, economist, computer specialist) and low-paid and low prestige jobs are
thought as being appropriate for girls ( nurse, hairdresser, secretary, public servant,
babysitter). Together, stereotypes and prejudiced gender attitude among teachers have an
adverse effect on all student's academic performance, attitudes and values.The school
environment is relevant for ensuring gender equity in the classroom from two perspectives.
It affects both girls' and boys' learning achievements and also provides an example of the
adult world of work ( Bursuc, 2000).

According to Appiah-Kubi et al., ( 2020) Common factors cited for the gender gap in
education in Ghana are culture, poverty and pregnancy, the education of girls has not
been paid much attention or encouraged in some Ghanaian communities because of the
cultural belief that the education of girls is not as important as that of boys. This perception
is dominant especially in the rural areas where the primitive traditional values, customs
and belief system of the Ghanaian society still prevail. The little attachment of
importance to girl child education has been born out of the belief that she does not require
book knowledge to play her traditional roles. Examples of such roles include giving birth,
raising children, cooking, cleaning the home and working on the farm. With such mindset,
the girl child’s education is seen as a waste of time and resources by some people.
However, this is changing over the years upon seeing the importance of education in the
lives of girls and women, with many accomplished women emerging and demonstrating
the importance of education.

It is for this reason that the classroom teacher is suppose to understand and make
meaning of gender equity in the classroom to ensure that both boys' and girls' participate
and enjoy fully the resources available at their disposal, giving each and every learner the
equal opportunity and chance to partake fully in classroom and actualize their future goals
without any inferior complex but a well motivated prospect willing to challenge the norm

.
1.2 Statement of the problem

Considering the abundance of literature on (female oriented) gender equality in education

beginning in the 1970s,to today's research, it is shocking that not much has been captured
on teachers ' meaning - making about gender. For this reason, many teachers of social
studies enter the class with the traditional way of thinking and teaching. As for few brilliant
learners understand the lesson at hand they move on, giving little attention to the majority
who needs more re-teaching of the lesson.

Many studies have addressed connection between teachers gender biased and perception of
specific subject ability (math, literature, arts and science), or different treatment based on
gender, but few, if any have analyze how teachers perceive gender equity to be autualized
in the social studies classroom experience of today. This study will address the gap in the
literature by examining how teachers make meaning about gender, how they perceive
gender to translate into classroom (where and how important they consider gender equality
measures to be recognized as the greatest driver towards eliminating poverty and achieving
overall sustainable human development (Ibid). Equity in social studies classroom or
supporting the outcome of students of all backgrounds and abilities is essential to a
productive learning environment.

However promoting equity is complex. This is to say, prioritizing the needs of varied
learners abilities at time is difficult. This is so because various needs must be considered by
the teacher to ensure equity. It is therefore important for teachers to create an environment
that promotes fairness in order for learners to succeed. Equality and equity are both needed
to do this equality in a class means every student has the same opportunity to succeed and
making these accommodation for learners is equity. This is needed in a class to ensure an
equal opportunity to succeed is possible for every student.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to explore ways of promoting gender equity in the social
studies class

1.4 Research Objectives

The study seeks,

1. To determine the knowledge of teachers of social studies with respect to the

meaning of gender.
2. To find out how they can translate their perception of gender equity into their
classroom environment.
3. To investigate whether teachers receive gender sensitivity training in any form
either through their formal preparation to become an educator or by their employer.

1.5 Research Questions

1. How do teachers of social studies make meaning about gender?

2. How do they perceive the meaning of gender equity to translate into their classroom
environment?
3. Do teachers receive gender sensitivity training in any form either through formal
preparation to be an educator or by their employer?

1.6 Significance of the study

The researchers believes that, the study will contribute to the literature base of gender in
education in varied ways. The study will provides greater depth of understanding of
teachers' perspectives, contributing to the generation of meaningful critical analysis. The
study intends to bridge the gap between gender researchers notions of gender equality and
development and those of the teaching community, from which the values are converted to
the student population.

Furthermore, it is my hope that the findings from the work will contribute positively to the
ways equity can be promoted in the social studies class and again can be of help for further
studies.
1.7 Delimitation of the study

The research was conducted in the Mampong Municipality in some selected junior high
schools in Ashanti Region of Ghana.

The research chooses various schools in other to get varied responses from various teachers
in different schools.

1.8 Limitations of the study

There were numerous limitations that were confronted throughout the research process;
some were inherent to the methodology selected, while others were due to time and
environmental factors. However, every effort was made to counteract the limitations posed
by the study. One of the limitations inherent to qualitative research is the fact that the
epistemology of multiple truths generates results that are locally situated and open to
interpretation by the researcher and the subjects, making generalizability and reliability
nearly impossible (Conrad & Serlin, 2011). However, it is generally recognized that neither
of these are goals in qualitative studies, and therefore is of little practical concern. The
subjectivity that is intrinsic to the methodology creates results that cannot be considered
entirely objective. Scholars familiar with the qualitative methods recognize this, and while
it may not meet positivist standards, the quality indicators of credibility, transferability,
dependability, and conformability all adhere to the accepted standards by the qualitative
community.

Limited scope was also an issue with the selection of the in-depth approach. The nature of
the qualitative interviews allowed for a greater amount of probing into the issue of gender
meaning and making in the classroom context, but only in the contexts provided by the
subjects. Ideally, the qualitative interviews would have been combined with a quantitative
questionnaire reaching a larger body of subjects to provide a broader view of the issue, but
this was not possible due to financial and time limitations.

1.9 Organization of the study

The chapter one makes efforts to introduce the research work by giving a background to the
study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research objectives,
research question, significance of the study, délimitation of the study, limitations of the
study and the organization of the study are the components of chapter one. Chapter two
deals with the review of related literature. Chapter three considers the methodology of the
study, how data was collected and a description of the various instruments employed in the
study. Chapter four talks about the results and discussions on the analyzed data. Chapter
five gives the suggestion and recommendation made on the study.This, the researcher
believes are ways to help boost and motivate learners to perform better because when the
classroom has an in-depth knowledge on the varied needs of all the pupils and accord them
with equal and fair treatment with respect to their needs performance in social studies and
with this in other subjects will improve.

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The understanding of the concept of gender and its associated terms will help this study

address the theoritical and practical issues in the struggle for gender equity both in social

studies class and general education management. The prejudice women face in their daily

life undertakings against the privileges bestowed to men by different societies, social

groups, races and cultures justify the search for gender equity between the two sexes.
This chapter defines and explores the concept of gender and its related terms which

include, gender equality, equity and inequality. These terms are examined in the context of

the study at hand so that the theoritical understanding of these terms will inform the

practical processess such as data collection and data analysis.The chapter looks at the

international efforts to achieve gender equality between men and women. These

international efforts are enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

1948, and the Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs). The study will also make effort

to have a discuss on teacher perceptions.

2.2 The Concept Of Gender And Its Related Terms

The term gender encompasses gender inequality, gender equality and gender equity in its

broader sense. This family of words always poses difficulties in understanding and

application to many people, hence I attempt to isolate and briefly examine them below in

the context of this study.

2.3 Gender

The term gender is closely associated with the term sex and in many instances these two

have been used interchangeably though erroneously Mut. Reeves and Baden ( 2000)

differentiate these two terms thus; "sex" refers to the biological characteristics that

categorise someone as either female or male; whereas "gender" refers to the socially

constructed roles, ideas and practices of what it is to be female and male. Mutswangwa

(2010) posits that " sociologically , the word gender refers to socio-cultural definition of

man and woman and the way societies distinguish men and women and assign them social

roles." In a similar way, Gandari, Chaminuka and Mafumbate (2010) posit that gender "

refers to the rules, norms, customs and practices by which biological differences between
males and females are translated into socially constructed differences between men and

women and boys and girls" From the above cited authorities it is clear that gender roles,

rights, responsibilities and expectations are a function of socialisation and that gender is

culturally ascribed depending on the value attached to each sex.

The concept of gender is therefore heavily dependent upon one's sex as societies have

different roles, responsibilities and expectations for each sex. Mutswangwa (2010)

postulate that "the fact that gender revolves around expectations, characteristics, aptitudes

and likely behaviour of both boys and girls as well women and men, it is therefore socially

significant because it leads to differential treatment of boys and girls as well as men and

women in the family and in the wider society." The differential treatment of girls and boys

as well as men and women in the family and in the wider society becomes the rallying

point for gender discrimination between men and women. This is substantiated by

Mafumbate et al ( 2010) thus; " these expectations come from the idea that certain qualities

and roles are " natural" for girls and women while other qualities are " natural" for boys

and men." In this light it can be argued that this kind of categorisation results in unequal

value and unequal treatment between the sexes by different societies. The unequal

treatment and value bestowed to girls and boys as well as men and women becomes a

prelude to the prejudices women encounter and men's privileges in accessing to power,

opportunities, choices and resources. This unequal value and unequal treatment of men and

women creates gender inequality between men and women and the subordination of

women to men. From the foregoing discussion, it can be seen that this social power

differential between men and women permeates throughout all spheres of life; hence

women play second fiddle to men across the broad life spectrum. The same supposition can
be seen in educational management positions where women are outnumbered by men.

Thus socialisation becomes the precursor to gender inequality between men and women.

However, feminist groups, gender activists and other women action groups can take solace

learned over time and consequently such subordination can be changed or ended. But this

change cannot be achieved overnight as it needs a concerted and coordinated approach to

make an impact lest victory may remain elusive for some time to come. Gender roles and

responsibilities disadvantage women and favour men. This results in gender inequality, a

concept that is explored below.

2.4 Gender inequality

The assertion that " men are all equal but some are more equal than others " by Orwell (

2000), aptly describes the unequal relations between men and women. To qualify this

relationship, Mutswangwa (2010) sees gender inequality in a broader sense and posit that:

Gender is closely related to the roles and behaviour assigned to women and men based on

their sexual differences. As soon as a child is born families and society begin the process

of gendering. The birth of a son is celebrated, the birth of a daughter is filled with pain;

sons are showered with love, respect, better food and proper health-care. Boys are

encoureged to be tough and outgoing; girls are encoureged to be home bound and

shy...gender inequality is therefore a form of inequality which is distinct from other forms

of economic and social inequalities. It dwells not only outside the household but also

centrally within it. It stems not only from pre-existing differences in economic endowment

between women and men, but also from pre-existing gendered social norms and social

perception.
It can therefore be seen that gender inequality is deeply rooted in the cultural and

teaditional perception of sons and daughters by different societies and cultures. These

perceptions and socialisation patterns culminate in value differential between the boy and

the girl child. They grow up into men and women who are valued differently, obviously the

girl child/woman with more prejudices while the boy child/man has more privileges, hence

gender inequality. Inequalities between men and women take many forms but are

generally visible in under-representation in education, legislative bodies and land

ownership just to mention but few. The world Bank Human Development Report (1995) in

Dollars and Gatti (1999) provides some concrete illustrations of gender inequalities

between women and men under the law in many countries:

A. Right to nationality. In much of west Asia and North Africa, women married to

foreigners cannot transfer citizenship to their husbands, though men in similar situations

can.

B. Right to manage property. Married women are under the permanent guardianship of

their husbands and have no rights to manage property in Botswana, Chile, lesotho, Namibia

and Swaziland.

C. Right to income: Husbands can restrict a wife's employment outside the home in

Bolivia, Guatemala and Syria.

D. Right to travel. In Arab countries, a husband's consent is necessary for a wife to obtain a

passport, but not vice versa. Women cannot leave the country without their husbands

permission in Iran.
These examples mentioned here reveal the perpetual subordination of women to men,

depriving them of their inalienable right to dignity and other fundamental rights and

personal freedoms. Women continue to be marginased and denied the full enjoyment of

their rights and liberties. Though somewhat universal, gender bias differs in magnitude

from one community to another. To this end, Dollas and Gatti ( 1999) concluded that: the

relative status of women is generally poor in the developing world compared to developed

countries. In the poorest countries, as a rule, girls get less education than boys, there is

less investment in women's health than in men; legal rights of women in the economy and

in marriage are weaker than men's rights and women have less political power( as

evidenced, for example, by their low representation in parliaments).

The above-evidence exposes the harsh and painful reality that women continue to suffer.

There is justice in struggles for the emancipation of women by women rights organisations,

human rights groups, gender activists and national governments.

2.5 Gender Equality

The need for equal treatment between men and women is to achieve gender equality.

Reeves and Baden ( 2000) posits that " gender equality denotes women having the same

opportunities in life as men, including the ability to participate in the public sphere." In the

same view the unit for the promotion of the status of women and Gender (2000) posit that

gender between men and women: Entails that all human beings, both men and women ,

are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by

stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different

behaviour, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favoured

equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their
rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male

or female.

The legal framework of the equality of sexes is enshrined in a number of international,

regional and domestic statutes. Hence the Universal Declaration of Human Right 1948

cited in Gutsa. (2011), says " All human are born free and equal, the Convention on the

Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, stressed the terms "equal

rights of men and women", " equality of rights of men and women" and "full equality of

men and women" ." The same source posits that CEDAW goes on to enumerate the "same

rights" and the "same opportunities " which must be available to all men and women in

various fields of human activities including, but not limited to, education, marital status and

labour. Thus, the concept of gender equality maybe taken to primarily refer to the full

equality of men and women to enjoy the complete range of political, economic, civil, social

and cultural rights, with no one being denied access to these rights or deprived of them on

the basis of their sex.

It is out of the above identified international statutes that a number of legal, regional and

national policies have been crafted and implemented to curb gender discrimination.

Examples of such policies include Equal pay for Equal work, Sex Discrimination Act 1975

(UK), the promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 2000 in

South Africa. The enactment of such statues is critical in the achievement of gender

equality between men and women, but it is even more critical that they are properly

enforced otherwise cultural beliefs are seen as the stumbling block to attaining real

equality between men and women.

The above argument is very important in the attainement of gender equality as men and

women are born free, equal and with equal rights. It is the socialisation premised on

culture that differentiates women from men as women are treated as second class citizens,

thus relegating them to be the " hewers of wood" and "drawers og water" for their men

folk. Consequently with women playing second fiddle to men , the achievement of equal

representation between men and women in educational management positions can never

be attained.

Gender inequality is a universal phenomenon as many cultures across the globe practice

'son preference ', which accords more privileges to the son than to the girl child. Such

cultures include those found in Asia and far East. To this, UNESCO ( 2003 in Ncube

2013) reports that: Countries in North Africa, the Middle East, South Asia ( Pakistan, India

and Bangladesh) and East Asia ( China, Republic of Korea) communities exhibit strong

cultural preference for sons. Gender inequalities in education in such societies are simply

one aspect of generalised and systematic discrimination against women and girls. Son

preference has far reaching consequences on the provision of education for girls as they

are discriminated against, starved of both materials and moral support, as the resources

are set-aside for sons.

To achieve gender equality between men and women, cultural practices which are a cause

and effect of gender inequality have to be addressed as the root cause and a stumbling

block to gender equality. Hence, Gandari, Chaminuka and Mafumbate (2010) observed

that:
The World Health Organisation ( WHO) is implementing educational programmes to

teach women about protecting their health, but traditional cultural practices continue to

perpetuate discrimination against women. This situation in turn forces women into high

risk situations. Women are therefore put at a disadvantage because of cultural practices.

The discrimination and the bias women have endured over many years has not gone

unnoticed. Efforts have made and continue to be made to free women from un-envied

position of subordination to men in all spheres of life across the globe.

2.6 The International Arena

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948(UDHR) is the basis for the international

community's commitment to the achievement of gender equality. Through the UDHR,

member states have pledged to achieve universal respect for and observance of human

rights and fundamental freedoms and the equal rights of men and women. The declaration

clearly stipulates that the will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of

government. This means that member states will subordinate their will to that of the

people, a kind of rule for the people by the people. This is based on the principle that

everyone has the right to take part in the government of his/her country, directly or

indirectly and to a just and favourable conditions of work.

The above provisions are comprehensive and all-embracing setting a tone for the

achievement of gender equality. The provisions call for the observance and respect of

human rights and fundamental freedoms at government level. The declaration therefore

sets legal and political framework meant to usher democratic governance by member states

so that the will of the people should be a strong anchor of the government where both
men and women are equal before the law. Education is tasked with the promotion of

gender equality which can only be achieved by appointing women to half of the ministry's

posts. Women should be actively and fully engaged in policy development, decision

making and implementation rather than being mere passive implementers of policies. The

declaration makes benchmarks of how member states can achieve gender equality. On the

basis of the aims and provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) it

is that the declaration benchmarks sets clear platform for the realization of gender equality

by member states in their different capabilities. The Universal Declaration of Human

Rights has been operationalised through the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of

Discrimination against Women ( CEDAW).

2.7 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGS)

In september 2000, under the auspices of the United Nations, the presidents, prime

ministers and monarchs unanimously adopted the Millennium Declaration, committing

themselves to a series of international development objectives to be attained by 2015.

According to the World Bank, the Millennium Development Goals are commonly

accepted as framework for measuring development progress. Gutsa et al ( 2011), said, "

basically the commitments include halving poverty head counts, achieving universal

primary school completion and cutting child mortality rates by two thirds."

However the focus of this study is on gender issues in general and gender equity in

particular, hence below are the relevant gender equality oriented statements of the

Millennium Development Goals:

 A. Achieve Universal primary education: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere,

boys and girls alike will be able to complete a full course of primary school.

B. Promote gender equality and empower women to eliminate gender disparity in

primary and secondary education, no later than 2015 ( Gandari, Chaminuka and Mafumbate

2010)

The two goals and targets are long term and complementary in that education as a social

phenomenon, holds key to the advancement and empowerment of girls and women. Low

educational or no qualifications at all for women is seen as detrimental to women

advancement/empowerment. It can therefore be argued that creating opportunities for girls'

participation in education is a pre-requisite for women's full participation in educational

management positions.

2.8 Teacher Perceptions

Since the 1970s, there has been a growing body of scholarly research regarding gender-

based differences in classroom experiences. These studies have focused on a myriad of

subjects, one of which being teacher values, procedures and expectations and how these

influence the educational experiences of boys and girls. More recent studies have

concentrated on teacher perceptions regarding gender differences in certain circumstances:

in the subjects math, science and literature; regarding beliefs about inherent abilities; and

in terms of underachievement.

Although there has been less recent research on teacher perceptions of gender than there

was in the past, the work still extremely important as the educational field and educators
themselves, reflect many social and cultural beliefs about gender( Sanders, 2000; Todor,

2010). Studies show that students, especially female students are more likely to internalize

teacher beliefs and attitude into their own social identity, beliefs, goals and personal

behaviours ( Sadker & Zittleman, 2009; Sanders, 2000; Todor, 2010). For girls as well,

subject selection is highly motivated by teacher preference ( Sanders, 2000). Therefore,

understanding the nature of teachers' gender perception and expectations is paramount in

the education field. Research has found that teacher attitudes towards gender manifest

themselves during daily teacher-student interactions, which generally has a bias in favor of

male students ( Berekashvili, 2012; Sadker & Zittleman, 2009). Studies of classroom

dynamics show that white males receive the greatest portion of a teacher's attention,

followed by males of color, white females, and females of color ( Sanders, 2000). Other

studies have shown that the praise given to males is more enthusiastic than that given to

females ( Acker, 1988). Berekashvili ( 2012) posits: the problem is that when

differentiations ( manifested in attitude and behavior) stem from gender stereotypes, they

reflect existing gender orders... where value is placed upon masculine traits and differences

are represented in a hierachical way and where girls are given a psychologically and

socially unfavorable position.

2.9 Gender and Classroom Practices

Classroom interaction between teachers and students put males in the spot light and

relegate females to the sidelines or to invisibility (Sadkar, 1994). In 1992, the American

Association of University Women (AAUW) found the females receive less attention from
teachers than males, and this attention is often negative or critical, resulting increased self-

doubt about their abilities. Dale Spender (1982), believes that sexism is a bias that is

practically impossible to eliminate because it is the foundation of education in our male

dominated society. Alice Christie states that even in a class room firmly grounded in

feminist pedagogy, gender bias was almost impossible to eliminate.

The researcher along with two fellow teachers spent a minimum of three hours for

observation in each school where the study was conducted. Along with this, the researcher

had conducted purposeful visits and informal interactions with teachers and students in

schools which are not included in the study, which contributed further in strengthening the

quality of data.

The researcher observed whether boys and girls talk to each other during and after

the class hours and also who dominates the physical space of classroom, conversations and

discussions during class time and beyond the class hours. Verbal and non-verbal behaviour

of the teachers were studied for example whom does the teacher call out more in the class

and whether he/she moves around, makes contacts by proximity (to boys or girls) more in

the class room were also observed.

Studies reveal that in the early years of their education, girls are equal to or ahead of

their male counterparts on standardized and psychological assessments. However upon

graduation from high school, girls have often fallen behind their male counterparts. In

Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls, which has become a classic work in the

field of gender and education, Sadkar and Sadkar (1994), stated that the self esteem of

elementary girls remained high even though they received less time, less help and fewer

challenges from the teachers. However, the constant reinforcement for passivity results in
a decline in their independence and self esteem. Sadkar and Sadkar concluded, as victims

of neglect, girls are penalized for doing what they should and lose ground as they go

through school. (Owens, 2003)

Research has shown that in many developing countries, the onset of puberty results in

significant changes in school participation for girls (Bayene, 1989; Herz, 1991). Menarche,

which is the onset of menstruation and the most dramatic sign of puberty in girls, affects

socialization by girls with family and community and may have a significant impact on

their education. (Chung et al., 2001) Once a girl has attained puberty she has immediately

‘acquired’ the capacity to reproduce. So her entire life changes – abruptly, her mobility

restricted, she is scolded for jumping or running, she becomes periodically ‘impure’ and

‘untouchable’ and many other sex role stereotypes snatch away the few privileges she

enjoyed as a child. Since the students included in the study are of pre-puberty age group, it

can be concluded that there is no conscious effort to ‘protect’, ‘domesticate’, or ‘moral

police’ girls by their parents or teachers.

During interview most of the teachers denied instances of gender discrimination in the

classroom. Most of them stated that they did not differentiate between boys and girls in the

classroom. They treated both sexes equally and saw them all as students. This approach

minimized the researcher’s chances for further enquiry. Teachers need to be made aware

of their gender-biased tendencies, and the biased messages they unintentionally impart to

students every day. Unless teachers are made aware of the gender-role socialization and of

the methods and resources necessary to eliminate gender-bias in their class rooms, girls will

continue to receive an inequitable education.

Equity in teaching challenges educators to treat all students equally and to recognize and

accommodate different learning styles. Consequently, today’s teachers must be sensitized

about the damage gender inequity can cause not only to students but also to society as a

whole. Qualified educators should be able to recognize and correct the patterns of gender

inequity. Schools must strive to assist female, as well as male students by providing a broad

and thorough education that is gender sensitive. While educators cannot magically erase all

gender inequalities or resolve all of the problems created as traditional gender roles

disintegrate, they can achieve significant results by making a conscious and concerted

effort to not only avoid gender inequities in the classroom, but also by actively encouraging

the reverse of such inequities (Davidson, 2002).

 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN.

The purpose of this study is to understand how teachers make meaning about gender, how

they perceive gender differences translate into the classroom environment, and whether

gender equity is considered to be an important issue in education today. Thus, qualitative

research in the form of responsive in-depth interviews provides the best methodological

framework, as noted by Rubin and Rubin (2009), “if you are looking for shades of meaning

or want to explore the positions between extremes…in-depth interviewing makes sense”.

Thus, the research undertaken was a qualitative research design.

3.2 POPULATION

The population of the study were all teachers of social studies in Mampong public Junior

high schools in Ashanti Region of Ghana. The main reason been that the researcher had

exposure to these schools and was familiar with the environment.

3.3 Sample & Sampling Technique

The sample was drawn based on convenience. Nikolopoulou. (2022), posits that

convenience is a non-probability sampling method where units are selected for inclusion in

the sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to access. He adds, this can be

due to geographical proximity. As the researcher had exposure and was familiar with the

environment, the participants were either known by the researcher or was introduced by

help from friends. The sample size for this research study were 20 teachers.
3.4 Data-gathering Instruments.

The main instrument used in the collection of data in this research study was a structured

interview. The interview guide was structured into three sections, with the first section

having (15) questions centered to gather information on how teachers make meaning about

gender and the level of gender sensitivity training. The second section had (7) questions

and it centered on gathering information on how meaning of gender equity translate into the

classroom. The last section had (3) questions and was centred on gathering information on

teachers familiarity with global goals towards equity in the likes of the Mellinium

Development Goals(2030) and whether these goals are realistic.

3.5 Data Collection Procedure

An in-depth interview was the only tool employed in this study to gather qualitative data.

An interview schedule was used to collect data from the respondents. The questions were

sanctioned according to the study objectives. The interviews were tape-recorded and later

transcribed for analysis and interpretation. Collection of data started on the 28th of

February and ended on June 6.

3.6 Data Analysis

The interviews were transcribed and then checked for accuracy by the participants to

ensure their true intentions were also documented. The transcriptions were coded for

themes by focusing in on the data to recognize patterns and then selectively funneling those

patterns into relevant themes and relationship. The data was then organized using the

mixed-method software Dedoose.

 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1: RESPONDENTS SCHEDULE AND DATES

RESPONDENTS DATE SCHEDULE TIME

Number 4, 8 &10 January 10, 2022 11:00am

Number 2,6 &12 January 15, 2022 11:00am

Number 11&15 January 30, 2022 11:00am

Number 14&13 February 2, 2022 11:00am

Number 16, 18&17 March 17, 2022 1:00am

Number 10, 19 &3 March 10, 2022 1:00am

Number 1&9 December 1, 2021 12:00pm

Number 20&5 April 1, 2022 12:00pm

Table 2: CONCEPTIONS OF GENDER (MEANINGS AND PRACTICES)

RESPONDENTS THEMES RESPONSE

16 ( 80%) Gender meaning  Gender is seen as biological, physiological,

or relating to the male/female binary.

 Expanded their definition by adding sexual

4 (20%) identity, non-binary identifiers, including

identity, individual identity and personality.

20 (100%) How does gender  None of the respondent took a neutral

differences position about gender manifestation in the

manifest itself in classroom.

12 (60%)
education and the
 During teaching, I try to select materials
classroom?
that will appeal to both boys and girls. At

times I would select reading materials

about sports and in other instances sentence

diagramming into competitive games and

both boys and girls loved it.

2 (10%)  They normally ignore curriculum suggested

collaborated groupings and decide on

individual work. The workload in

combining boys and girls to work together

is too much.

2 (10%)  In other to engage female learners, I would

try to inculcate discussion, asking

questions, writing stories.

 No efforts were made by the Junior high

12(60%)
school teachers to draw lesson plans to
 include both sexes.

5(25%)  Behaviour direction or redirection was used

as a medium to channel gendered behaviour

into productive activity.

 Girls tend to act matured than boys in lower

13(65%)
primary level and as such they are treated

differently from boys during counseling

sections.

The first question asked of participants was how they, as teachers, conceived of “gender.”

By and large, the majority of the teachers participating in the study perceived “gender” to

be synonymous with “sex.” Of the 20 participants interviewed, all of the teachers first cited

gender as being biological, physiological, or relating to the male/female binary; only four

of the interviewees expanded upon their definitions of gender to include other factors that

contributed to their conception of “gender.” The four expanded definitions of gender

included: sexual identity, non-binary identifiers, including sexual identity, individual

identity, and personality. When these teachers spoke about individual identity and

personality, they explained that “gender” was part of our socialization into Western society

and a means through which society categorizes individuals based on sex, which becomes

incorporated into the individual’s larger personality and identity schema.

 These explanations demonstrate a fuller comprehension of how gender and sex are

intertwined in Western culture and society and how this labeling affects the lived

experiences of individuals throughout their lives and education. Some respondents also

noted gender’s intersectionality with other identity factors, but seemed to place gender at

the forefront in terms of the initial “labeling” done by society. One interviewee noted: “it’s

one of the first labels that you’re given in your life. Before they’re [children] labeled

anything else, black, white, Asian, whatever it is, you’re a girl or a boy…it’s a label that

society puts on you. Your gender”(Participant #8, January 10, 2022). In a comment about

the intersectionality of gender and race, another interviewee stated “my aunt…she would

always tell me that I had two strikes against me: the first was being born female, the second

was being born black. In that order” (Participant #10, January 10, 2022). The use of gender

as a form of labeling was also seen as being related to sexual identity, although only one

participant specifically cited sexuality identity as being synonymous with gender.

Interestingly, one of the male social studies teacher who again handles physical education

had an extensive knowledge of the role of sexual identity in sports, from the chromosome

tests of the Cold War to current NCAA sexual identity rules (including stipulations about

how long a person must be undergoing hormone therapy before being allowed to compete

as a different sex), but did not consider sexual identity to be tied to his conceptualization of

gender. However, when pressed for a more concrete explanation of gender, the participant

explained: Well I definitely think you’re born…with a certain lean one way or the other,

and most people are clearly born as a male or female, and some are born as a male or

female sexually, and I think you’re definitely born…you know we had kids in kindergarten

that you could see were more male or female. (Participant #11, January 30, 2022)
 Thus, his explanation of “gender” conflates the notions of biological sexes and

sexual identity, although he did not acknowledge the latter in his meaning-making about

gender. Discussions that began with analyses of conflating variables, such as gender and

race, as seen above, or others that delved into sexuality and identity, however, quickly

became conversations of the “sexes.” Clearly then, although some of the teachers did

perceive “gender” to be more involved than simply a differentiation between the sexes, the

term still emerges repeatedly as being undergirded by binary, biological distinctions. Thus,

the broader explanations of gender appeared to be more of a comprehension of an abstract

notion than ideas grounded through experiences. Even those teachers who explained gender

in ways that were not merely sex based did not demonstrate this same definition when

supplying concrete examples of how gender played out in their classrooms, reverting

instead to the gender/sex synonymity. For this group of respondents, then, any conception

of “gender” is beleaguered with notions of sex differentiation.

As mentioned above, teachers provided sex-based examples of gender when discussing

how gender manifests itself in the classroom environment. Interestingly, however, none of

the teachers interviewed took a “gender neutral” position when describing their teaching

styles in the classroom, a perspective that has been demonstrated by teachers in words

(though not through their actions) in other studies of gender in the classroom (Garrahy,

2001). Instead, the vast majority of participants discussed making conscious decisions in

lesson planning, behavior direction, and student-teacher interactions with the intention of

appealing to what they perceived to be the sex-based differences between their students, or

in order to create a gender-equalizing environment. Discussions of lesson planning quickly

brought to light some of the perceived binary qualities of gender held by the teachers. The

social studies teachers in the lower primary level created loose activity plans for the day,

with time divided between activities that utilized fine and gross motor skills, sensory

exploration, and more; children are then expected to choose which activities appeal to

them, with less formal instruction and direction than is common in the upper primary level.

Thus, it was the upper primary teachers who conversed the most about conscious

curriculum decisions they took to involve either their male or female students—whomever

was considered least likely to be interested in the lesson at hand. Though these decisions

were made in the spirit of generating equal interest or equal gender equity in terms of

participation, all of the tactics used by the teachers were in order to benefit the male

students; none of the conscious decisions were made with the female students in mind.

In the interview with a teacher of social studies, whom is also responsible for

handling students in English language, “gender” distinctions manifested themselves

twofold in her classroom lesson planning. In discussing how to garner interest in literature

amongst students, the teacher noted: Now when I taught reading/language arts I tried to

select literature that was going to appeal to the boys, to get them involved in it, like Into

Thin Air, so we could talk about athletics and extreme sports and they could do research on

that and be interested in that. (Participant #2, Jan. 15, 2022) In yet another example

provided, the teacher stated that she would turn sentence diagramming into a competitive

game, claiming, “they [students] loved it. I would try to make it a little interesting…the

boys liked that. Now the girls liked it too, they normally liked it. But the boys really did”

(Participant #2, Jan. 15, 2022). Another respondent, a jhs English teacher whom also

handles social studies, noted that he would often ignore curriculum-suggested collaborative
classroom projects, opting instead for individual work, explaining “the hassle is just too

much…even though the learners like to work together, and I wish they could do more work

together, it takes so long to place the males in groups where they don’t cause trouble…by

the time everyone is settled, class would be over. It’s too much” (Participant #14, Feb. 2,

2022).

These examples are revealing: they demonstrate the teacher’s belief that boys have

less interest than girls in literature and reading unless the topic is somehow connected to

traditionally “male” themes, and that competition through games is a mechanism through

which to garner boys’ attention to tedious activities, such as sentence diagramming. As

well, by omitting collaborative projects from the English classroom, the other respondent is

allowing his classroom curriculum to be dictated by the misbehavior of some male

students. An ethnographic study conducted by Garrahy (2001) also found that teachers

made pedagogical decisions based on student interests, purposefully selecting what the

teacher believed to be male themes, such as sports, in order to facilitate male participation,

sometimes to the detriment of female students (in the example given by Garrahy, the

school’s library only had books on famous female dancers, gymnasts, and figure skaters,

eliminating the possibility of finding non-traditional female role models on which to write).

When asked what activities they chose to engage the female students, the upper primary

teachers appeared to be at a loss for words, citing discussions, asking questions, writing

stories, and “making their papers pretty” as examples. These activities, however, were not

selected to target the female students, but were merely activities already a part of the lesson

plan that the girls seemed to enjoy. None of the Junior high school (JHS) teachers ever

discussed creating lesson plans to generate interest from either sex. This may be because
there is greater pressure on jhs school teachers to follow state and federal guidelines for

accountability purposes, and therefore the teachers have less leeway in their lesson

planning. The jhs teachers interviewed also worked in lower socio-economic areas, where

issues of race and poverty are more prevalent than those of gender, perhaps contributing to

why topics were not selected to solicit interest based on gender.

Behavior direction—or redirection—was brought up by five of the eight lower primary

education teachers interviewed, as a means through which to channel “gendered” behaviors

into productive activities. Two teachers explained that in order to regain a sense of calm in

the classroom, male students were often split up into different activities, or they would

purposely regroup the children into gender heterogeneous groups in the hopes of “lowering

the volume,” or “quieting the boys” (Participant #18, Mar. 17, 2022; Participant #10, Mar.

10, 2022). Girls were not mentioned as having to be redirected in order to control

behavioral issues; however, both girls and boys were discussed as having strong activity

preferences, which generally conveyed different teacher perspectives about “gendered”

behavior. Girls were noted to enjoy arts and crafts, writing center, and dramatic play; these

activities were associated with concentration, quiet, creativity, fine motor skills, and social

skills.

The boys, on the other hand, were generally discussed as participating more in blocks, floor

toys, and science center; they were noted to be louder, more physical, and more interested

in the “abstract” concepts supposedly reinforced through these activities.

It should be noted that although the teachers made these generalizations during the

interviews, each teacher provided one example of a girl or a boy w ho fell outside of these
“gendered” behavior and activity preferences in their discussion. These students were not

treated as aberrations in the discussions, but they were considered exceptions to general

patterns of gendered behaviors. One lower primary teacher noted, “on average, the boys

want to play with the cars and trucks more, but there’s a girl who loves to play with trucks

too. And she doesn’t mind that she plays alone sometimes, she just loves the trucks”

(Participant #18, Mar. 17, 2022). Similarly, a boy was mentioned who spent the majority of

his days in arts and crafts, a locus usually dominated by the female students. Finally, the

participants discussed engaging (or witnessing other teachers engage) in different student-

teacher interactions based on the pupil’s sex. One participant explained that as a counselor,

she approached male and female students differently to appeal to them, stating: We do treat

them differently in terms of when you’re talking to them. When you talk to girls, you go

with the, “come on…you’re 13 years old, you’re so mature, you’re older, you’ve got to

think about your future. You don’t want to mess around with a boy who’s going to get

you in trouble, and these boys are babies.” And I did tell them that a lot. And that is gender

biased but it’s true. A 13 year-old boy is like a 10 year-old. (Participant #1, Dec. 26, 2021)

The participant noted that boys, on the other hand, were not approached at all regarding

their behavior in relationships with female students, because the upper primary counselors

did not consider them mature enough for a reasonable discussion. Another example of

differential treatment based on perceived gender differences arose in discussions with

various participants concerning discipline. Female students, it was noted, tend to be less of

a discipline problem in the classroom, but when discipline is necessary, require a different

style than that required of male students. One teacher commented, “my girls can be

conniving…so they can get away with more than the boys do. But when you do try to talk
to them about it, they all emotional and defensive” (Participant #14, Feb. 2, 2022) . In a

similar vein, another participant stated: Boys got more [disciplinary] attention than girls

did. Now, was that because they were more outspoken, or was it because the teachers didn’t

want…that teachers thought it [discipline] was too harsh a punishment for the girls? Girls

[were] more tactful…and if that’s how they were in most situations you could see how the

boys would get into more trouble. (Participant #2, Jan. 15, 2022) The same teacher went on

to note that unlike boys, when girls were disciplined, they held on to an “attitude” or

resentment about the disciplinary action that could last days after the incident, leading the

participant to suggest that perhaps this “attitude” contributed to some teachers preferring

interactions with male students more than female students.

The comments above regarding differential student-teacher interactions illuminate the

various ways in which teachers perceive, and act upon, “ gender” differences, and how

these differences are bifurcated between male and female students. As the upper primary

counselor’s statements demonstrate, female students are considered to be more mature and

reasonable than their male counterparts; however, due to this perception, girls are burdened

with a greater share of responsibility in their role within their young relationships. This

implies that male students may not held accountable by teachers and administrators for

their actions in the realm of early relationships and their (sometimes very serious)

consequences. Regarding discipline, the participants’ statements reflect the prevailing data

on differential gender treatment in classrooms.

Teachers are shown to give male students more attention, both positive and negative

(Sadker & Zittleman, 2009); boys also receive more disciplinary action than girls. What is

interesting about the participants comments in this study is their reasoning behind
variations in discipline: girls are noted to be more “conniving” and “sneaky” in their

misbehavior (Participant #14, Feb. 2, 2022; Participant #2, Jan. 15, 2022), and teachers are

hypothesized to be more fearful about offending the sensibilities of their female students in

taking disciplinary action. However, these opinions on “ gender” differences and

disciplinary action came from teachers working in schools servicing relatively affluent

areas; their generalizations could be correlated to the intersectionality between gender and

class, a topic that certainly requires greater study, but is outside the purview of this research

endeavor. The final aspect of significance in terms of gender manifestations in the

classroom environment actually involved the gendered interactions within the institution of

education: between various levels of staff interactions, and regarding the female-

concentrated nature of education. Regarding the former, both female and male teachers

noted the different dynamics apparent in teaching establishments; however, only female

teachers commented on what they perceived to be a negative stigma regarding the teaching

profession, and its implications in furthering women’s autonomy in Western society. The

teaching profession, which at the early childhood, primary, and JHS levels is heavily

female—in 2020, only 29% of public school teachers from early childhood to JHS level

were males (World bank, May 2020)—creates a different work dynamic for the

professionals involved, both males and females. Surprisingly, none of the male teachers

professed having any problem with being in the minority. The male teacher who had been

in the profession the longest noted that “there’s a lot more males in education than when I

first started…you know, you had a different peer group at school, at school you came in

and didn’t talk about the game last night, you talked about other things, your kids, your

family” (Participant #11, January 30, 2022). However, some of the female teachers
discussed having problems when working with male teachers or administrators. When

discussing some of the changing dynamics between male and female teachers over time,

one participant noted, “the male teachers were more self-important. The men that were

supposed to be in charge of peer mediation, they didn’t really want to do that, they wanted

to be administrators. So they got off on the fact that they got to carry a walkie-talkie, and

tell people what to do” (Participant #1, Dec. 1, 2021). Another female teacher commented

that the males in her school would “suck up” to the administration, but were “less than

helpful” in team building with female coworkers (Participant #20, Apr. 1, 2022).

Although these data are hardly conclusive, they demonstrate a fracture in the gendered

interaction between school faculty members, and a dynamic that could easily translate into

student classroom dynamics, with negative repercussions. As indicated by the data, there is

a sense of disconnection between the male and female staff, which stems from perceptions

of differences in pedagogy and professional behavior. I f gender inequities are the root of

these negative views amongst the female staff, then it is more likely that they harbor

resentments, which may manifest itself in differential treatment of students.

Table 3: GENDER SENSITIVITY TRAINING

RESPONDENTS THEMES RESPONSES

20 (100%) Gender sensitivity training  None of the respondents have

had gender sensitivity training
either through education or
professional development
settings.

 Few of the teachers have made

5(25%) efforts to inquire about gender
sensitivity.
20 (100%)  All teachers expressed their
concern about gender
sensitivity training to be
included in education in
modern era.

None of the 20 teachers interviewed had had any formal gender sensitivity training, either

in a higher education or in professional development setting. Although all of the

participants professed having an interest in gaining greater practical knowledge on the

subject of gender in the classroom, only five of the teachers had pursued this on their own

time: s ome through reading articles and books related to gender and gender sensitivity.

An issue of importance here is what kind of gender sensitivity training should be offered;

as all teachers expressed a desire to have a greater understanding, whether or not gender

sensitivity should be addressed through the school systems is not an issue. Although the

perception of “gender” to be synonymous with “sex” prevailed among the participants,

other concepts, such as sexual identity, were also discussed; and as the following section

demonstrates, bullying is perceived to be a looming issue in school systems today,

suggesting that a broader conception of gender should be addressed in any formal training

given to education professionals.

Table 4: PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION

RESPONDENTS THEMES RESPONSES

15 (75%) Gender equity topic with  Race and poverty were

issues in current education discussed as the topic having
system. issues in today's education
system.

 Other issues discussed were

bullying, technology, obesity
and going green.

As mentioned above, the participants all shared an interest in learning more about gender

sensitivity and gender in the classroom; each saw value in fostering gender-equitable

classroom experiences and opportunities for learners. However, when asked what other

equity topics were an issue in today’s school systems, the teachers had a host of other

concerns that they saw as outranking gender in terms of importance. Many of the

participants discussed either race or poverty (or the intersectionality of the two) as being of

greatest concern; other issues included obesity, “going green,” bullying, and technology in

the classroom. So while there was a consensus among the participants in the need to

address ongoing gender inequities in education, other problems were considered more

urgent.
Figure 1: Issues of Importance Based on Teacher Responses

CHAPTER FIVE
 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter will provide a summary of the findings of the research. As well,
recommendations will be made for further research based on the limitations of this study as
well as the topics uncovered that need to be studied with a broader scope. Finally, and a
conclusion.

5.2 Summary of findings

The teachers in the study made meaning about gender in various ways. A ll the respondents
conceived of gender to be related to the biological distinctions between the sexes in some
way, whether they overtly stated this as their definition or if this theme emerged through
their concrete examples of gender in the classroom. However, some of the participants had
expanded conceptions of gender that included sexual identity and non-binary identifiers,
such as personality and individuality.

The interviewees attributed their understandings of gender to a number of factors.

Socialization and Western society’s expectations for boys and girls were considered by
most to be of major significance in shaping their beliefs about the meaning of gender.
However, parents and family members’ views on gender in regard to sexual identity were
also mentioned by some as having a greater influence than the messages of broader society.
Other influences, including teachers and the media, were mentioned by many as being
instrumental in the shaping of gender, but were not noted to be of significance in their
individual notions as to the meaning of gender itself.

The conception of gender in so far as it related to sex was perceived as translating into
the classroom in a number of ways. Many of the teachers described their students’
characteristics as being either attributed to males or females, with boys being seen as more
active, “rough and tumble,” disobedient, and fun, whereas girls were seen as more helpful,
attentive, obedient, and detail-oriented. The teachers also noted binary gender preferences
in terms of activity choices: girls liked discussions, arts and crafts, dramatic play, and
social activities, whereas boys liked building, sports, games, and “abstract” subjects such as
science. In conversations regarding perceptions of gender in the classroom, teachers
mentioned making a few conscious pedagogical decisions to alleviate perceived tensions in
the classroom environment created by gender differences. The first involved lesson
planning: some teachers described choosing specific topics to appeal to the boys in their
classes, or omitting certain activities in order to maintain a calm otherwise disrupted by the
behavior of some male students. Other decisions included behavior redirection; male
students would be placed in gender-heterogeneous groups in order to curb negative
behaviors, or put in activities that would best suit their “active” ways. Teachers also
explained the use of differentiated ways of speaking and interacting with students based on
perceived gender differences in order to be more effective.

None of the teachers reported ever receiving any type of gender sensitivity training,
either through their formal preparation to become an educator or by their employer. Some
of the respondents noted having taken a workshop or done reading about the subject of
gender equity in the classroom on their own time, however. All of the participants claimed
that they consider gender sensitivity training necessary and beneficial to classroom
dynamics, with special interests in learning about neurological differences between boys
and girls, behavior management techniques, and strategies on how to foster gender-
equitable environments in the classroom. Finally, the teachers discussed the perceived
relevancy of gender equality in today’s educational system, especially in terms of other
issues that have surfaced in recent years. Although none of the teachers considered gender
equity to have been reached in Ghanaian education, the topic was not deemed to be as
prominent as other inequalities. Race and poverty—and the intersectionality of the two—
were most often cited as being of greater importance in the school. Other issues, such as
“going green,” technology in the classroom, and obesity, were mentioned as being of rising
importance in today’s classrooms.

5.3 Conclusion
This study demonstrates the importance of critical theory, and socially engaged research
generally, to the research field. As noted by Harding and Norberg (2005), “socially
engaged research—that is, research that holds itself ethically and politically accountable for
its social consequences—can in many instances produce knowledge”. Although positivism
usually has more clout in the Ghanaian educational system—especially with attention paid
to its use in accountability measures—constructivist accounts are ever more important in
order to report the very human aspects of education and its enduring inequalities. Without
such accounts, inequities such as gender-differentiated treatment might continue unabated,
rendered invisible by positivist normative data.

5.4 Recommendations

This study has a number of implications. Since the scope of the study was narrow,
addressing only 20 respondents in Mampong municipality is not enough, further studies are
necessary to address some of the themes and questions that arose throughout the research
process. Other implications, including those regarding critical theory and educational
practices, will also be

Discussed. The limited scope of this study should be addressed. Ideally, further research
should examine how teachers across the entire Ghana Education System (GES) make
meaning about gender, in the hopes that any mores and norms of regions might emerge,
further illuminating the topic. As well, since children express themselves differently
throughout the developmental stages, and because they are gradually exposed to greater
media and socialization processes over time, examining teacher conceptions of gender by
school level would provide greater depth of meaning to future findings, as teacher
conceptions might be related to their students’ development stage. A more extensive
mixed-methods approach might provide fruitful results as well. Although some quantitative
data were collected in this study, the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data
simultaneously proved unsuccessful due to time constraints. C ombining quantitative
factors, such as age, race, place of upbringing, political views, and major in higher
education are all variables which, when combined with qualitative data, may allow further
insight into gender conceptions. Teachers’ conceptions of “gender” merits further research
in order to generate more substantial data for theory and practice-based implications to be
determined. The findings from this study suggest that teachers largely conceive of gender
in a way that is firmly grounded in biological sex differences, with some grappling with
more abstract notions that take into account sexuality and individual identity. This lack of
clarity and attention to the understanding of gender has detrimental effects on gender
equality in classroom practices. The concrete examples of praxis given demonstrate a lack
of intentionality on behalf of the school staff; instead of accounting for individuality within
gender, teachers show a pattern of behavior that is undergirded by binary notions of gender
differences by sex. These patterns of practice highlight the real need for gender sensitivity
training in all Ghanaian schools today. Although issues such as race and poverty were
considered more important to the respondents, the classroom behaviors discussed by the
teachers indicate a picture of ongoing gender inequality in the school system. N ot only are
factors such as sexuality and individuality generally omitted from notions gender in the
classroom, differential treatment by sex is prevalent, and not considered an issue by those
within the system to

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 APPENDICES

EQUITY IN EDUCATION INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Interview Questions Background:

1. Age:

2. Race:

3. Personal educational background:

4. Teaching history (school levels, age groups, and subjects, not school names):

5. Age when first started teaching:

6. Age of retirement

(if applicable)Definitions:

1. How do you define gender?

2. Do you think there is a difference between gender equality and equity? If so, why? Is the
difference applicable in all fields, or only in education?

3. How did you come by these definitions? Were they formulated by personal experiences,
readings, or professional development?

Experiences:

1. When you first started teaching (or working in education), was establishing gender
equity in schools discussed (among faculty or parents)? a. If it was discussed, in what way?
b. What words were used?2. Have there been times during your teaching career that you
have noticed gender equity issues in practice (e.g. differential treatment, subject tracking,
etc.)?

a. If so, please describe.

b. When did these incidences of gender equity in practice occur?

3. Have you had gender sensitivity training either through your school or through another
form of professional development?

a. If so, could you please describe some of the major themes of the development?

b. Did you think the development was helpful?

c. Did you implement any of the suggestions into your classroom practices?

5. In your experience, do interventions affect gender equity in practice in the classroom? 6.

What indicators of gender equity do you notice in the classroom?

7. Do you think that gender roles are changing? a. If so, how? b. Does it change the
dynamics of the classroom?

8. Do you think that gender is a ‘hot’ topic in education today? Please explain.

9. Do you think that gender equity should be at the forefront of education today? a. Why or
why not?

Please explain.Opinions:

1. How would you describe your female students? Your male students?

2. Do you find females have a certain learning style? The males?

3. Do you think the positioning of sections for activities in the classroom contributes to
gender stereotypes and/or separation?

4. Do you think that male and female students should be treated the same, or do you think
they have different needs in the classroom?

5. Do you think your perceptions about gender affect your attitudes and behaviors in the
classroom/school environment?